Enthusiasm constrained? British industrial R&D and the transition from war to peace, 1942-51

Business History

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 42-63

  Horrocks, Sally M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; INDUSTRIAL HISTORY; RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT;

UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 0032858264     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: 17437938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076799900000307     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. The proceedings were published as Federation of British Industries (hereafter FBI), Industry and Research (1946). Its success was discussed at a meeting of the FBI Industrial Research Committee on 28 May 1946, the minutes of which are found in University of Warwick Modern Records Centre, CBI Predecessor Archive (hereafter MRC) MSS 200 F/T1/1/166.
2. M. Dupree (ed.), Lancashire and Whitehall: The Diaries of Sir Raymond Streat, Vol.2: 1939-57 (Manchester, 1987), p.332.
3. FBI, Industry and Research.
4. D.C. Mowery, 'Industrial Research, 1900-1950', in B. Elbaum and W. Lazonick (eds), The Decline of the British Economy (Oxford, 1986), pp.189-222; C. Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as Great Nation (London, 1986), pp.93-100 and 266-70; and idem The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Realities 1945-1950 (Basingstoke, 1995), p.171. It should be noted that the analysis of the inter-war period presented by both Mowery and Barnett has been comprehensively challenged; see D.E.H. Edgerton and S.M. Horrocks, 'British Industrial Research and Development before 1945', Economic History Review, Vol.47 (1994), pp.213-38.
5. D.C. Mowery, 'Industrial Research, 1900-1950', in B. Elbaum and W. Lazonick (eds), The Decline of the British Economy (Oxford, 1986), pp.189-222; C. Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as Great Nation (London, 1986), pp.93-100 and 266-70; and idem The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Realities 1945-1950 (Basingstoke, 1995), p.171. It should be noted that the analysis of the inter-war period presented by both Mowery and Barnett has been comprehensively challenged; see D.E.H. Edgerton and S.M. Horrocks, 'British Industrial Research and Development before 1945', Economic History Review, Vol.47 (1994), pp.213-38.
6. D.C. Mowery, 'Industrial Research, 1900-1950', in B. Elbaum and W. Lazonick (eds), The Decline of the British Economy (Oxford, 1986), pp.189-222; C. Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as Great Nation (London, 1986), pp.93-100 and 266-70; and idem The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Realities 1945-1950 (Basingstoke, 1995), p.171. It should be noted that the analysis of the inter-war period presented by both Mowery and Barnett has been comprehensively challenged; see D.E.H. Edgerton and S.M. Horrocks, 'British Industrial Research and Development before 1945', Economic History Review, Vol.47 (1994), pp.213-38.
7. D.C. Mowery, 'Industrial Research, 1900-1950', in B. Elbaum and W. Lazonick (eds), The Decline of the British Economy (Oxford, 1986), pp.189-222; C. Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as Great Nation (London, 1986), pp.93-100 and 266-70; and idem The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Realities 1945-1950 (Basingstoke, 1995), p.171. It should be noted that the analysis of the inter-war period presented by both Mowery and Barnett has been comprehensively challenged; see D.E.H. Edgerton and S.M. Horrocks, 'British Industrial Research and Development before 1945', Economic History Review, Vol.47 (1994), pp.213-38.
8. S.B. Saul, 'Research and Development in British Industry from the End of the Nineteenth Century to the 1960s', in T.C. Smout (ed.), The Search for Wealth and Stability (London, 1979), pp.114-38.
9. D.E.H. Edgerton, 'British R&D after 1945: A Reinterpretation', Science and Technology Policy, Vol.6 No.2 (1993), pp.10-16, and idem, 'British Industrial R. and D. 1900-1970', Journal of European Economic History, Vol.23 (1994), pp.49-68.
10. D.E.H. Edgerton, 'British R&D after 1945: A Reinterpretation', Science and Technology Policy, Vol.6 No.2 (1993), pp.10-16, and idem, 'British Industrial R. and D. 1900-1970', Journal of European Economic History, Vol.23 (1994), pp.49-68.
11. One reason which has been cited for not looking at these events in detail has been the difficulty of access to suitable sources. In fact such sources are plentiful, if somewhat more disparate and difficult to track down than those for state-funded civil R&D. T. Wilkie, British Science and Politics since 1945 (London, 1991), pp.3-5.
12. P. Dunsheath, The Future of Industrial Research', British Industries, Vol.28 (1943), pp.59-60.
13. DNB, Supplement, 1951-60.
14. Quoted in J.F.O. McAllister, 'Civil Science Policy in British Industrial Reconstruction (unpublished D.Phil, thesis, University of Oxford, 1986), p.40.
15. Reports of BAAS conferences were published as British Association for the Advancement of Science 'The Place of Science in Industry', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1945), pp.106-55' and idem, 'Scientific Research and Industrial Planning', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1946), pp.286-333. The London Chamber of Commerce produced its own Report on Scientific Industrial Research (1944).
16. Reports of BAAS conferences were published as British Association for the Advancement of Science 'The Place of Science in Industry', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1945), pp.106-55' and idem, 'Scientific Research and Industrial Planning', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1946), pp.286-333. The London Chamber of Commerce produced its own Report on Scientific Industrial Research (1944).
17. Reports of BAAS conferences were published as British Association for the Advancement of Science 'The Place of Science in Industry', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1945), pp.106-55' and idem, 'Scientific Research and Industrial Planning', Advancement of Science, Vol.3 (1946), pp.286-333. The London Chamber of Commerce produced its own Report on Scientific Industrial Research (1944).
18. McAllister, thesis, p.117.
19. W. Larke, 'Industry's Part', in FBI, Industry and Research, p.9.
20. H. Morrison, 'Scientific Research and Industrial Expansion', in FBI, Industry and Research, p.71.
21. FBI, Industry and Research, p.viii.
22. The activities of the FBI IRC are best followed through its minutes; see note 1 above.
23. Dupree (ed.), Lancashire, pp.200 and 240.
24. DSIR Report For The Year 1947-48: With a Review of the Years 1938-48 (London, 1951).
25. On the foundation of the NRDC, see Wilkie, Science, p.52, and P. Gummett, Scientists in Whitehall (Manchester, 1980), pp.35-6.
26. On the foundation of the NRDC, see Wilkie, Science, p.52, and P. Gummett, Scientists in Whitehall (Manchester, 1980), pp.35-6.
27. FBI, Industrial Research Committee, Research and Development in British Industry: A Survey of Expenditure on Industrial Research and Development in the Year 1950-51 (1952), pp.6-7.
28. Edgerton 'R&D after 1945', and idem, 'Industrial R. and D. 1900-1970'. British technological enthusiasm is discussed in D.E.H. Edgerton, 'The "White Heat" Revisited', Twentieth Century British History, Vol.7 (1996), pp.53-82.
29. Edgerton 'R&D after 1945', and idem, 'Industrial R. and D. 1900-1970'. British technological enthusiasm is discussed in D.E.H. Edgerton, 'The "White Heat" Revisited', Twentieth Century British History, Vol.7 (1996), pp.53-82.
30. Edgerton 'R&D after 1945', and idem, 'Industrial R. and D. 1900-1970'. British technological enthusiasm is discussed in D.E.H. Edgerton, 'The "White Heat" Revisited', Twentieth Century British History, Vol.7 (1996), pp.53-82.
31. F. Turner 'Public Science in Britain, 1880-1919', Isis, Vol.71 (1980), pp.589-608.
32. For example see M. Sanderson, 'Research and the Firm in British Industry, 1919-1939', Science Studies, Vol.2 (1972), pp.119-21, and Mowery, 'Industrial Research', p. 192.
33. For example see M. Sanderson, 'Research and the Firm in British Industry, 1919-1939', Science Studies, Vol.2 (1972), pp.119-21, and Mowery, 'Industrial Research', p. 192.
34. This criticism came particularly from advocates of planning in science, such as J.D. Bernal, who attacked industrial research in Social Function of Science (London, 1939), pp.55-7.
35. The final report was published in 1943 as FBI, Industrial Research Committee, Research and Industry: Report of the FBI Industrial Research Committee (London, 1943). See also MRC, MSS 200/F/3/T1/127 c) for the original responses.
36. S. Blank, Industry and Government in Britain: The Federation of British Industries in Politics, 1945-65 (Farnborough, 1973), especially pp.75-118 which discusses relations between the FBI and the Attlee governments. The introduction to H. Mercer, N. Rollings and J.D. Tomlinson (eds.), Labour Governments and Private Industry: The Experience of 1945-1951 (Edinburgh, 1992), sums up this period as one during which 'constant contacts and routine consultation, reached an unprecedented and not-to-be-repeated peak', p.7.
37. S. Blank, Industry and Government in Britain: The Federation of British Industries in Politics, 1945-65 (Farnborough, 1973), especially pp.75-118 which discusses relations between the FBI and the Attlee governments. The introduction to H. Mercer, N. Rollings and J.D. Tomlinson (eds.), Labour Governments and Private Industry: The Experience of 1945-1951 (Edinburgh, 1992), sums up this period as one during which 'constant contacts and routine consultation, reached an unprecedented and not-to-be-repeated peak', p.7.
38. PRO CAB 132/51, Cabinet Committee for Future Science Policy, Minutes of 1st Meeting, 5 Dec. 1945.
39. FBI, Industrial Research Committee, Scientific and Technical Research in British Industry: A Statistical Survey by the FBI Industrial Research Secretariat (London, 1947), tables 10-14.
40. The histories of a number of companies among the largest spenders in the 1930s contain comments from this period criticising the earlier effort, see, for example, D.C. Coleman, Courtaulds: An Economic and Social History, Vol.3: Crisis and Change, 1940-1965 (Oxford, 1980), pp.17-21. On the general coverage of science and technology in British business history, see D.E.H. Edgerton, 'Science and Technology in British Business History', Business History, Vol.29 (1987), pp.84-103.
41. The histories of a number of companies among the largest spenders in the 1930s contain comments from this period criticising the earlier effort, see, for example, D.C. Coleman, Courtaulds: An Economic and Social History, Vol.3: Crisis and Change, 1940-1965 (Oxford, 1980), pp.17-21. On the general coverage of science and technology in British business history, see D.E.H. Edgerton, 'Science and Technology in British Business History', Business History, Vol.29 (1987), pp.84-103.
42. Sir Charles Goodeve, director of the British Iron and Steel Research Association, used this strategy; see his The Place of Research in the Iron and Steel Industry', British Industries Vol.31 (1946), pp.268-9. After outlining the strengths of research in the sector, he complained that 'other objectives and controversies are now tending to cloud the picture'. The decision to nationalise steel contributed to the deterioration of relations between the FBI and the government, see Blank, Industry and Government, pp.98-9.
43. Sir Charles Goodeve, director of the British Iron and Steel Research Association, used this strategy; see his The Place of Research in the Iron and Steel Industry', British Industries Vol.31 (1946), pp.268-9. After outlining the strengths of research in the sector, he complained that 'other objectives and controversies are now tending to cloud the picture'. The decision to nationalise steel contributed to the deterioration of relations between the FBI and the government, see Blank, Industry and Government, pp.98-9.
44. On services to members, see Blank, Industry and Government, pp.57-8.
45. This links between science and national prestige were clear in the 1951 Festival of Britain, not only in the Dome of Discovery, but also in exhibits on, for example Industrial Research and Television. Festival of Britain Catalogue of Exhibits (London, 1951).
46. FBI, Town and Country Planning Act, 1947 (1947) and PRO BT 177/523.
47. Assessment of this survey is more difficult because few papers relating to it have been preserved. The published report appeared in 1952 as FBI IRC, Research and Development. Blank, Industry and Government, pp.97-110, discusses the deterioration of this relationship.
48. Assessment of this survey is more difficult because few papers relating to it have been preserved. The published report appeared in 1952 as FBI IRC, Research and Development. Blank, Industry and Government, pp.97-110, discusses the deterioration of this relationship.
49. A detailed account of the intricacies of the licensing procedure is found in S. Rosevear, 'Balancing Business and the Regions: British Distribution of Industry Policy and the Board of Trade, 1945-51', Business History, Vol.40 (1998), pp.77-99.
50. C.E. Heim, 'R&D, Defense and Spatial Division of Labor in Twentieth Century Britain', Journal of Economic History, Vol.47 (1987), pp.365-78, and idem, 'Government Research Establishments, State Capacity and Distribution of Industry Policy in Britain', Regional Studies, Vol.22 (1988), pp.375-86.
51. C.E. Heim, 'R&D, Defense and Spatial Division of Labor in Twentieth Century Britain', Journal of Economic History, Vol.47 (1987), pp.365-78, and idem, 'Government Research Establishments, State Capacity and Distribution of Industry Policy in Britain', Regional Studies, Vol.22 (1988), pp.375-86.
52. The decision-making criteria were conveyed to the FBI IRC in autumn 1946, and later circulated to interested firms, see MRC MSS 200/F/3/T1/29, 'Memo of Discussion with Mr Calder and Mr Bowen of the Board of Trade', 18Nov. 1946, 'Memo of Meeting with Mr De Villiers and Mr Newis of the Ministry of Works', 21 Oct. 1946 and circular letter to firms seeking permission to build laboratory facilities, 23 Jan. 1947.
53. On industrial investment between 1945 and 1951, see M. Chick, 'Private Industrial Investment', in Mercer et al. (eds.), Labour Governments, pp.74-90.
54. PRO CAB 124/660, case 1562.
55. Cheshire Record Office (hereafter CRO), DIC/X10/376, Widnes Laboratories, Gossage Site, memoranda and correspondence 19 June 1947 to 24 Feb. 1949.
56. MRC MSS 200/F/T1/29, Bard to R.K. Sanders, Director of Research, Metal Box, 18 Dec. 1946.
57. MRC MSS 200/F/3/T1/17, correspondence between B.J.A. Bard and H. Mason Bibby and C. Leslie Bibby, Jan. 1948-Feb. 1949 and Memo, Bard to B. White, 11 Feb. 1949.
58. 'The West Midlands Gas Board Central and Research Laboratories, Birmingham', Chemistry and Industry, Vol.69 (1951), pp.287-8.
59. MRC MSS 200/F/3/T1/17, correspondence between B.J.A. Bard and H.C.H. Graves, Vitamins Ltd, 1947-8.
60. PRO CAB 124/658, case 1112, Plessey Company.
61. D.E.H. Edgerton, 'Whatever Happened to the British Warfare State? The Ministry of Supply, 1945-1951', in Mercer et al. (eds.), Labour Governments, p.120.
62. O.W. Humpreys, 'The Organisation and Planning of Research and Development in the General Electric Co. Ltd', in R.S. Edwards and H. Townsend (eds.), Business Enterprise: Its Growth and Organisation (London, 1962), pp.328-9.
63. Edgerton, 'Warfare State', pp.102-5.
64. CRO, DIC/X10/372 contains papers relating to work carried out at ICI's Widnes laboratories for the Atomic Energy Authority and Tube Alloys before them, including its publicity potential.
65. S. Akehurst and N. Richards, Philips Research Redhill, Jubilee (Redhill, 1996) and material collected in connection with the jubilee celebrations in 1996.
66. FBI, IRC, Scientific and Technical Research, tables 11 and 12 demonstrate the disciplinary distribution of the additional scientists and engineers sought by firms. Over 40 per cent of the total number required were chemists.
67. MRC, MSS 200/F/T1/1/166, IRC minutes, 28 Sept. 1945.
68. MRC, MSS 200/F/3/T2 7/4, 'Call up of Science and Engineering Students Completing Full Time Studies in 1949', Memo to the Chancelor of Exchequer from B.J.A. Bard, n.d. but 1949.
69. Philips Research Laboratories, 'Mullard Research Laboratories', typescript, p.3-4 notes that a number of the early recruits to the staff came from the Admiralty Signals Establishment.
70. PRO LAB 6/691, 'History of the Deferment Arrangements for Science and Engineering Graduates, 1949-60', 19 Oct. 1960. The most comprehensive study of National Service is L.V. Scott, Conscription and the Attlee Governments: The Politics and Policy of National Service, 1945-1951 (Oxford, 1993). Its administrative machinery is described in G. Ince, The Ministry of Labour and National Service (London, 1960), Chapter 7.
71. PRO LAB 6/691, 'History of the Deferment Arrangements for Science and Engineering Graduates, 1949-60', 19 Oct. 1960. The most comprehensive study of National Service is L.V. Scott, Conscription and the Attlee Governments: The Politics and Policy of National Service, 1945-1951 (Oxford, 1993). Its administrative machinery is described in G. Ince, The Ministry of Labour and National Service (London, 1960), Chapter 7.
72. MRC, MSS 200/F/3/T2/7/4, 'Call up' Memo. The difficulties faced by the chemical industry were highlighted in the trade press. An editorial, 'The Shortage of Chemist', in Chemistry and Industry, Vol.69 (1951), p.781, devoted its longest paragraph to the problems of National Service. This concern needs, however, to be balanced against the role palyed by National Service in providing a training in lower level skills, so that 'its discontinuance will make it the more important to expand civilian facilities for technical training now'. The Economist, Vol.197 (1960), p.867.
73. MRC, MSS 200/F/3/T2/7/4, 'Call up' Memo. The difficulties faced by the chemical industry were highlighted in the trade press. An editorial, 'The Shortage of Chemist', in Chemistry and Industry, Vol.69 (1951), p.781, devoted its longest paragraph to the problems of National Service. This concern needs, however, to be balanced against the role palyed by National Service in providing a training in lower level skills, so that 'its discontinuance will make it the more important to expand civilian facilities for technical training now'. The Economist, Vol.197 (1960), p.867.
74. PRO LAB 6/691, 'Memorandum on Administration'. The shortage of scientific labour was discussed constantly by the FBI IRC.
75. CRO, DIC/X10/370, Widnes Laboratory Group A Director's Reports, 'Widnes Mass Spectrometer', 20 Feb. 1952.
76. PRO CAB 124/652-61, for example, cases 396 and 1726, Worcester Royal Porcelain, case 811, Opticell Ltd, case 896, Griffin & Tatlock, case 1162, Baird & Tatlock and Hopkin & Williams, case 1378, A. Gallenkamp, and case 1450, Adam Hilger.
77. R.T.P. Davenport-Hines and J. Slinn, Glaxo: A History to 1962 (Cambridge, 1992), pp.186-90, and C.J. Thomas, 'The Pharmaceutical Industry', in D. Burn (ed.), The Structure of British Industry, Vol.69-71 (1951-53).
78. R.T.P. Davenport-Hines and J. Slinn, Glaxo: A History to 1962 (Cambridge, 1992), pp.186-90, and C.J. Thomas, 'The Pharmaceutical Industry', in D. Burn (ed.), The Structure of British Industry, Vol.69-71 (1951-53).
79. C. Jefferies, A Review of Colonial Research, 1940-1960 (London, 1964), pp.170-74.
80. The progress and eventual end of this shortage can be traced through the pages of Chemistry and Industry, Vols.69-71 (1951-53).
81. Coleman, Courtaulds, Vol.3, pp.112-6.
82. On the Sterling area and the motivations behind Britain's continued commitment to it, see A.P. Dobson, The Politics of the Anglo-American Special Economic Relationship 1940-1987 (Brighton, 1988), pp.1-138; C.R. Schenk, Britain and the Sterling Area: From Devaluation to Convertibility in the 1950s (London, 1994); and A.E. Hinds, 'Sterling and Imperial Policy, 1945-51', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol.15 (1987), pp.148-69.
83. On the Sterling area and the motivations behind Britain's continued commitment to it, see A.P. Dobson, The Politics of the Anglo-American Special Economic Relationship 1940-1987 (Brighton, 1988), pp.1-138; C.R. Schenk, Britain and the Sterling Area: From Devaluation to Convertibility in the 1950s (London, 1994); and A.E. Hinds, 'Sterling and Imperial Policy, 1945-51', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol.15 (1987), pp.148-69.
84. On the Sterling area and the motivations behind Britain's continued commitment to it, see A.P. Dobson, The Politics of the Anglo-American Special Economic Relationship 1940-1987 (Brighton, 1988), pp.1-138; C.R. Schenk, Britain and the Sterling Area: From Devaluation to Convertibility in the 1950s (London, 1994); and A.E. Hinds, 'Sterling and Imperial Policy, 1945-51', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol.15 (1987), pp.148-69.
85. Rosevear, 'Balancing Business', pp.84-8.
86. Figures derived from the three FBI surveys do indeed support the suggestion that the food industry fared particularly badly, but changes in the industry groupings between surveys make direct comparisons difficult, in particular the inclusion of oil companies in the same category as food firms for the 1930s which does not seem to have been repeated in later surveys. See the notes to Table 3 for further discussion of this point.
87. FBI, Scientific and Technical Research, Table 2.
88. Heim, 'Spatial Divisions of Labor', p.370, reveals that of 98 projects which reached the application stage, and for which a decision could be traced, only one was ultimately rejected and four were withdrawn
89. MRC MSS 200/F/3/T1/17 and 29 contain the Industrial Research Secretariat's correspondence on this subject which is slanted towards those enterprises which experienced difficulties, were forced to modify plans, or chose to abandon them all together. Looked at in conjunction with the material used by Heim in PRO CAB 124 652-61, a broader picture emerges.
90. A. Wilson, 'The Organisation and Planning of Research and Development in Courtaulds', in Edwards and Townsend (eds.), Business Enterprise, pp.318-21. Wilson is highly critical of the role played by building licences in impeding his development plans.
91. Rosevear, 'Balancing Business', p.88.
92. CRO DIC/X10/380, 'Widnes Laboratory Training of Laboratory Assistants', 22 Oct. 1946. The first intake was in 1948.
93. M. Olliver, 'Women in Chemistry', Journal of the Royal Institute of Chemistry, Vol.79 (1955), pp.413-20.
94. PRO LAB 6/301, 'Royal Institute of Chemistry Deferment of Young Men Training for Professional Qualifications in chemistry'. The RIC was expected to keep a track of men who had registered for its exams and to ensure that as student members they continued to meet the conditions for deferment.
95. Committee on Higher Education, Higher Education, Report of the Committee under the Chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961-63 (1963), pp.126-34, and J. Carswell, Government and the Universities in Britain: Programme and Performance 1960-1980 (Cambridge, 1985), pp.43-6.
96. Committee on Higher Education, Higher Education, Report of the Committee under the Chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961-63 (1963), pp.126-34, and J. Carswell, Government and the Universities in Britain: Programme and Performance 1960-1980 (Cambridge, 1985), pp.43-6.
97. Edgerton, "'White Heat'", p.82.
98. J. Jewkes, 'How Much Science?', Economic Journal, Vol.70 (1960), pp.1-16, and C.F. Carter, 'The Economic Use of Brains', Economic Journal, Vol.72 (1962), pp. 1-11.
99. J. Jewkes, 'How Much Science?', Economic Journal, Vol.70 (1960), pp.1-16, and C.F. Carter, 'The Economic Use of Brains', Economic Journal, Vol.72 (1962), pp. 1-11.
100. D.M. Blank and G.J. Stigler, The Demand and Supply of Scientific Personnel (New York, 1957), pp.37-46, and K.J. Arrow and W.M. Capron, 'Dynamic Shortages and Price Rises: The Engineer-Scientist Case', Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.73 (1959), p.307. More recently Stephan has discussed the continued difficulties encountered by those seeking to forecast scientific labour markets: P.E. Stephan, 'The Economics of Science', Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.34 (1996), p. 1215.
101. D.M. Blank and G.J. Stigler, The Demand and Supply of Scientific Personnel (New York, 1957), pp.37-46, and K.J. Arrow and W.M. Capron, 'Dynamic Shortages and Price Rises: The Engineer-Scientist Case', Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.73 (1959), p.307. More recently Stephan has discussed the continued difficulties encountered by those seeking to forecast scientific labour markets: P.E. Stephan, 'The Economics of Science', Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.34 (1996), p. 1215.
102. D.M. Blank and G.J. Stigler, The Demand and Supply of Scientific Personnel (New York, 1957), pp.37-46, and K.J. Arrow and W.M. Capron, 'Dynamic Shortages and Price Rises: The Engineer-Scientist Case', Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.73 (1959), p.307. More recently Stephan has discussed the continued difficulties encountered by those seeking to forecast scientific labour markets: P.E. Stephan, 'The Economics of Science', Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.34 (1996), p. 1215.
103. Studies which discuss this are analysed by Edgerton in 'R&D After 1945', pp.12-15, and Science, Technology and the British Industrial 'Decline', 1870-1970 (Cambridge, 1996), pp.56-63. See in particular C.F. Carter and B.R. Williams, Industry and Technical Progress (London, 1957), and idem, Science in Industry: Policy for Progress (London, 1959).
104. Studies which discuss this are analysed by Edgerton in 'R&D After 1945', pp.12-15, and Science, Technology and the British Industrial 'Decline', 1870-1970 (Cambridge, 1996), pp.56-63. See in particular C.F. Carter and B.R. Williams, Industry and Technical Progress (London, 1957), and idem, Science in Industry: Policy for Progress (London, 1959).
105. Studies which discuss this are analysed by Edgerton in 'R&D After 1945', pp.12-15, and Science, Technology and the British Industrial 'Decline', 1870-1970 (Cambridge, 1996), pp.56-63. See in particular C.F. Carter and B.R. Williams, Industry and Technical Progress (London, 1957), and idem, Science in Industry: Policy for Progress (London, 1959).
106. Studies which discuss this are analysed by Edgerton in 'R&D After 1945', pp.12-15, and Science, Technology and the British Industrial 'Decline', 1870-1970 (Cambridge, 1996), pp.56-63. See in particular C.F. Carter and B.R. Williams, Industry and Technical Progress (London, 1957), and idem, Science in Industry: Policy for Progress (London, 1959).
107. Saul, 'Research and Development', p.127.
108. S.N. Broadberry and N.F.R. Crafts, 'British Economic Policy and Performance in the Early Post-War Period', Business History, Vol.38 (1996), pp.65-91.