Violence, exile and ethnicity: Nyemba refugees in Kaisosi and Kehemu (Rundu, Namibia)

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 416-439

  Brinkman, Inge ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; REFUGEE; VIOLENCE;

ANGOLA; ARTICLE; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; CULTURAL FACTOR; ECONOMICS; EDUCATION; ETHNIC GROUP; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; NAMIBIA; POVERTY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REFUGEE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CONTROL; VIOLENCE;

ACCULTURATION; ANGOLA; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; ETHNIC GROUPS; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NAMIBIA; POVERTY AREAS; REFUGEES; SOCIAL CONTROL POLICIES; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; VIOLENCE;

NAMIBIA;

EID: 0032751181     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/030570799108597     Document Type: Article

References (199)

1. Beatrix Heintze, Ethnographische Zeiclmungen der Lwimbi/Ngangela (Zentral-Angola) (Wiesbaden, 1988), p. 7, referring to Antonio Francisco Ferreira da Silva Porto, Viagents e Apontamentos de um Portuense em Africa. Leitura com Introdução e Notas par Maria Emília Madeira Santos (Coimbra, 1986), p. 310. All ethnonyms used in this article may also be placed between inverted commas.
2. Beatrix Heintze, Ethnographische Zeiclmungen der Lwimbi/Ngangela (Zentral-Angola) (Wiesbaden, 1988), p. 7, referring to Antonio Francisco Ferreira da Silva Porto, Viagents e Apontamentos de um Portuense em Africa. Leitura com Introdução e Notas par Maria Emília Madeira Santos (Coimbra, 1986), p. 310. All ethnonyms used in this article may also be placed between inverted commas.
3. John Lonsdale, 'The Conquest State of Kenya', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley. Conflict in Kenya and Africa (London, 1992). p. 13. Also see Terence Ranger, 'Colonial and Postcolonial Identities', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 274-275.
4. John Lonsdale, 'The Conquest State of Kenya', in Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley. Conflict in Kenya and Africa (London, 1992). p. 13. Also see Terence Ranger, 'Colonial and Postcolonial Identities', in Richard Werbner and Terence Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities in Africa (London, 1996), pp. 274-275.
5. John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979), p. 324 and see pp. 318-341.
6. Terence Ranger, 'The Invention of Tradition Revisited: the Case of Colonial Africa', in Terence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (eds), Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa (Oxford, 1993), p. 84.
7. John Lonsdale, 'The Moral Economy of Mau Mau. Wealth, Poverty and Civic Virtue in Kikuyu Political Thought', in Berman and Lonsdale, Unhappy Valley, pp. 315-504.
8. Ranger, 'Revisited', pp. 64-65, 86-89.
9. Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent. The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Madison, 1993), p. 8. Also see Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals. Anthropology and History in Tanzania (Madison, 1990), p. 3.
10. Sara Berry, No Condition is Permanent. The Social Dynamics of Agrarian Change in Sub-Saharan Africa (Madison, 1993), p. 8. Also see Steven Feierman, Peasant Intellectuals. Anthropology and History in Tanzania (Madison, 1990), p. 3.
11. Richard Werbner, 'Multiple Identities, Plural Arenas', in Werbner and Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities, p. 1.
12. Harri Englund, 'Between God and Kamuzu: the Transition to Multiparty Politics in Central Malawi', in Werbner and Ranger (eds), Postcolonial Identities, pp. 107-135.
13. Ibid., p. 130.
14. Leroy Vail, 'Introduction: Ethnicity in Southern African History', in Leroy Vail (ed), The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (London, 1989), pp. 3-4.
15. 'Seine Bewohner haben zwar nur begrenzt zu einer gemeinsamen regionalen Identität gefunden, sind aber sprachlich, kullurell und historisch eng miteinander verwandt,' Achini von Oppen, '"Endogene Agrarrevolution" im vorkolonialen Afrika? Eine Fallstudie', Paideuma, 38 (1992), p. 273.
16. Lonsdale, 'Moral Economy', p. 328.
17. Rundu (including the nearby locations) is estimated to have about 45,000 inhabitants. Rundu Town Council, 'Proposal for: Demarcation of Rundu into Seven Wards', Rundu, 1995, p. 35 (received by courtesy of Mr L. Muhepa, Town Clerk of Rundu). A far more conservative estimate (16,000) is given in Gil Yaron, Gertie Janssen and Usutuaije Maamberua, Rural Development in the Okavango Region of Namibia: an Assessment of Needs, Opportunities and Constraints (Windhoek, 1992), p. 6.
18. Rundu (including the nearby locations) is estimated to have about 45,000 inhabitants. Rundu Town Council, 'Proposal for: Demarcation of Rundu into Seven Wards', Rundu, 1995, p. 35 (received by courtesy of Mr L. Muhepa, Town Clerk of Rundu). A far more conservative estimate (16,000) is given in Gil Yaron, Gertie Janssen and Usutuaije Maamberua, Rural Development in the Okavango Region of Namibia: an Assessment of Needs, Opportunities and Constraints (Windhoek, 1992), p. 6.
19. A census carried out in 1995 by the Headman of Kaisosi counted 4,855 Kaisosi inhabitants, of whom more than 50 per cent belonged to a Nyemba sub-group. Interview I, with Mr Moses Haingura, Headman of Kaisosi, and Pastor Joseph Ntsamba, Kaisosi, 9 July 1998. In contrast to most interviews during the fieldwork, this interview was not tape-recorded. The interview was conducted in Kwangali, Nyemba and English (if not stated otherwise, interviews were tape-recorded and held in a Nyemba dialect). Kehemu has a population of 5,387 (Rundu Town Council, 'Proposal'). I have no further information, except that many informants said that it was 'more mixed', the number of Nyemba speakers being below 50 per cent.
20. Information obtained from the census held by the Headman of Kaisosi referred to in the previous note.
21. The people coming through Zambia had arrived in Namibia at different dates, but were mostly recent immigrants. A quarter of the informants had come to Namibia after 1992, fourteen people had come around 1990, six during the 1980s, nine in 1976, six during the first phase of the war in Angola and another six before the war. For the remainder, the year of their arrival in Namibia is unknown.
22. More than a quarter of the informants were born in or near Kuito Kuanavale (26 people); seventeen people were born in or near Mavinga, six came from Menongue and another fifteen from other places within Kuando-Kubango. Six people were Namibian born, three came from Moxiko, one was born in Zambia and one came from Huambo. Of the remainder, their place of birth is unknown or could not be located on a map.
23. See Inge Brinkman, 'Town, Country and Bush. War, Identity and Cultural Landscape in south-eastern Angola', unpublished paper.
24. See Inge Brinkman, 'Ways of Death. Accounts of Torture from Angolan Refugees in Kehemu and Kaisosi (Rundu, Namibia)', unpublished paper.
25. Ranger, 'Revisiting', pp. 83-84.
26. Vail, 'Introduction', p. 12.
27. Ibid., pp. 5,13-15. Also see Patrick Harries, 'Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: the Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa', p. 82, and Hugh MacMillan, 'A Nation Divided? The Swazi in Swaziland and the Transvaal, 1865-1986', p. 282, both in Vail (ed), Creation.
28. Ibid., pp. 5,13-15. Also see Patrick Harries, 'Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: the Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa', p. 82, and Hugh MacMillan, 'A Nation Divided? The Swazi in Swaziland and the Transvaal, 1865-1986', p. 282, both in Vail (ed), Creation.
29. Ibid., pp. 5,13-15. Also see Patrick Harries, 'Exclusion, Classification and Internal Colonialism: the Emergence of Ethnicity Among the Tsonga-Speakers of South Africa', p. 82, and Hugh MacMillan, 'A Nation Divided? The Swazi in Swaziland and the Transvaal, 1865-1986', p. 282, both in Vail (ed), Creation.
30. Vail, 'Introduction', p. 16 and see, pp. 14-16.
31. Wendy James, 'Uduk Resettlement. Dreams and Realities', in Tim Allen (ed), In Search of Cool Ground. War, Flight and Homecoming in Northeast Africa (Geneva, 1996), p. 186.
32. Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile. Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology Among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago, 1995), pp. 27-37, 153-170, 193-194.
33. K.P. Prinsloo and D.J. Stoker (eds), Aspekte van Taal- en Kommunikasie-Aangeleenlhede in SWA/Namibië. Deel 1. Kavango's (Pretoria, 1982), pp. 24-26.
34. Martti Eirola, Jan Bradley and Arto Laitinen, Kavango, the Sambiyn Tribe. The Way of Life of the Mupapama River Terrace Community (Rundu, 1990), p. 9.
35. J.P. van S. Bruwer, Die Matriliniêre Orde in Okavangoland (Port Elizabeth, 1966), pp. 25, 143 (referring to figures from Johannes Lodevicus Bosch, 'Die Shambiu van die Okavango: 'n Volkekundige Studie', Ph.D. Thesis, Stellenbosch, 1964, p. 24, tables iv and xii).
36. J.P. van S. Bruwer, Die Matriliniêre Orde in Okavangoland (Port Elizabeth, 1966), pp. 25, 143 (referring to figures from Johannes Lodevicus Bosch, 'Die Shambiu van die Okavango: 'n Volkekundige Studie', Ph.D. Thesis, Stellenbosch, 1964, p. 24, tables iv and xii).
37. P.M. van Rooyen, 'Die Inheemse Reg van die Kavango', M.A. Thesis, Stellenbosch, 1977, pp. 4-6.
38. K.F.R. Budack, 'Der Kavango: Geschichte, Land und Leute', Afrikanische Heimatkalender (1976), p. 131.
39. 'Heute herrscht in dem Mbunda-Luchazes Gebiet ein solches Durcheinander von Staemmen, Voelkern und Abstammungen, dass oft unter einem Khankala-Dorfvormann etwa Luchazes, Mbunda, Jauma und andere wohnen, als ob sich das so gehoere.' Eberhard Schönfelder, 'Zu Fuss durch Angola zum Kongo' (typescript, s.I., s.d., probably around 1930), p. 195 (received by courtesy of Maria Fisch).
40. In Zambia, the term Luvale is also used. Robert Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity to Tribalism: the Upper Zambezi Region of Zambia', in Vail (ed), Creation, p. 379.
41. W. G. Clarence-Smith, Slaves. Peasants and Capitalists in Southern Angola. 1840-1926 (Cambridge, 1979), p.11.
42. For example, 'Ngangela' is explained as an Umbundu word meaning 'east' in Emil Pearson, People of the Aurora (Seal Beach, 1977), p. 11, or 'un-person' in Douglas L. Wheeler and René Pélissier, Angola (London, 1977), p. 9, or 'flat, sandy grassland' in Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (London, 1988), p. 23, or 'people from the forest' in Vwime Ngunga, 'Letter to the Editor', Review of Ethnology, 6 (1979), pp. 14-15, 120, quoted in Gerhard Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama Ostangolas und der Nachbargebiete', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35 (1992/1993), p. 180.
43. For example, 'Ngangela' is explained as an Umbundu word meaning 'east' in Emil Pearson, People of the Aurora (Seal Beach, 1977), p. 11, or 'un-person' in Douglas L. Wheeler and René Pélissier, Angola (London, 1977), p. 9, or 'flat, sandy grassland' in Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (London, 1988), p. 23, or 'people from the forest' in Vwime Ngunga, 'Letter to the Editor', Review of Ethnology, 6 (1979), pp. 14-15, 120, quoted in Gerhard Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama Ostangolas und der Nachbargebiete', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35 (1992/1993), p. 180.
44. For example, 'Ngangela' is explained as an Umbundu word meaning 'east' in Emil Pearson, People of the Aurora (Seal Beach, 1977), p. 11, or 'un-person' in Douglas L. Wheeler and René Pélissier, Angola (London, 1977), p. 9, or 'flat, sandy grassland' in Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (London, 1988), p. 23, or 'people from the forest' in Vwime Ngunga, 'Letter to the Editor', Review of Ethnology, 6 (1979), pp. 14-15, 120, quoted in Gerhard Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama Ostangolas und der Nachbargebiete', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35 (1992/1993), p. 180.
45. For example, 'Ngangela' is explained as an Umbundu word meaning 'east' in Emil Pearson, People of the Aurora (Seal Beach, 1977), p. 11, or 'un-person' in Douglas L. Wheeler and René Pélissier, Angola (London, 1977), p. 9, or 'flat, sandy grassland' in Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (London, 1988), p. 23, or 'people from the forest' in Vwime Ngunga, 'Letter to the Editor', Review of Ethnology, 6 (1979), pp. 14-15, 120, quoted in Gerhard Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama Ostangolas und der Nachbargebiete', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35 (1992/1993), p. 180.
46. For example, 'Ngangela' is explained as an Umbundu word meaning 'east' in Emil Pearson, People of the Aurora (Seal Beach, 1977), p. 11, or 'un-person' in Douglas L. Wheeler and René Pélissier, Angola (London, 1977), p. 9, or 'flat, sandy grassland' in Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death. Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730-1830 (London, 1988), p. 23, or 'people from the forest' in Vwime Ngunga, 'Letter to the Editor', Review of Ethnology, 6 (1979), pp. 14-15, 120, quoted in Gerhard Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama Ostangolas und der Nachbargebiete', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 34/35 (1992/1993), p. 180.
47. Meran McCulloch, The Ovimbundu of Angola (London, 1952), p. 3. Also see Heintze, Ethnohraphische Zeichnungen, p. 7, referring to Albino Alves, Dicionário Etimológico Bundo-Poriugués (Porto, 1951), p. 930.
48. Meran McCulloch, The Ovimbundu of Angola (London, 1952), p. 3. Also see Heintze, Ethnohraphische Zeichnungen, p. 7, referring to Albino Alves, Dicionário Etimológico Bundo-Poriugués (Porto, 1951), p. 930.
49. Meran McCulloch, The Ovimbundu of Angola (London, 1952), p. 3. Also see Heintze, Ethnohraphische Zeichnungen, p. 7, referring to Albino Alves, Dicionário Etimológico Bundo-Poriugués (Porto, 1951), p. 930.
50. For example, see Basil Davidson, The Search for Africa. A History in the Making (London, 1994), pp. 189-193. He describes Nkangala as a Mbunda sub-group in his In the Eye of the Storm. Angola's People (London, 1972), p. 41.
51. For example, see Basil Davidson, The Search for Africa. A History in the Making (London, 1994), pp. 189-193. He describes Nkangala as a Mbunda sub-group in his In the Eye of the Storm. Angola's People (London, 1972), p. 41.
52. José Redinha, Distribuição Étnica de Angola (Luanda, 1962), pp. 4, 17-18 and map.
53. Histórico Sobre a Criação dos Alfabetos em Línguas Nacionais (Lisbon, 1980); Matthias Brenzinger, Axel Fleisch, Friederike Lüpke, 'Situationsanalyse zur mehrsprachigen Bildung in einigen afrikanischen Staaten', Unpublished report, Köln, 1995, p. 7. Information provided by Axel Fleisch, 14 April 1998.
54. Histórico Sobre a Criação dos Alfabetos em Línguas Nacionais (Lisbon, 1980); Matthias Brenzinger, Axel Fleisch, Friederike Lüpke, 'Situationsanalyse zur mehrsprachigen Bildung in einigen afrikanischen Staaten', Unpublished report, Köln, 1995, p. 7. Information provided by Axel Fleisch, 14 April 1998.
55. Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama,' pp. 161-195.
56. Ibid., p. 170.
57. See note 12 and Joseph C. Miller, 'The Paradoxes of Impoverishment in the Atlantic Zone', in David Birmingham and Phyllis M. Martin (eds). History of Central Africa (London, 1983), p. 125; Michael Offerman, Angola zwischen den Fronten (Pfaffenweiler, 1988), p. 24.
58. See note 12 and Joseph C. Miller, 'The Paradoxes of Impoverishment in the Atlantic Zone', in David Birmingham and Phyllis M. Martin (eds). History of Central Africa (London, 1983), p. 125; Michael Offerman, Angola zwischen den Fronten (Pfaffenweiler, 1988), p. 24.
59. Von Oppen, "'Endogene Agrarrevolution'", p. 273; Gerhard Kubik, 'Lucazi-the Fate of a Minority Language in Northwestern Zambia and Eastern Angola', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 26 (1984) p. 38; Pearson, People, p.11; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 379-380; Gerhard Kubik, 'Mehrstimmigkeit in Zentral- und Ostafrika', in Artur Simon (ed), Musik in Afrika (Berlin, 1983), pp. 95, 367.
60. Von Oppen, "'Endogene Agrarrevolution'", p. 273; Gerhard Kubik, 'Lucazi-the Fate of a Minority Language in Northwestern Zambia and Eastern Angola', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 26 (1984) p. 38; Pearson, People, p.11; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 379-380; Gerhard Kubik, 'Mehrstimmigkeit in Zentral- und Ostafrika', in Artur Simon (ed), Musik in Afrika (Berlin, 1983), pp. 95, 367.
61. Von Oppen, "'Endogene Agrarrevolution'", p. 273; Gerhard Kubik, 'Lucazi-the Fate of a Minority Language in Northwestern Zambia and Eastern Angola', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 26 (1984) p. 38; Pearson, People, p.11; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 379-380; Gerhard Kubik, 'Mehrstimmigkeit in Zentral- und Ostafrika', in Artur Simon (ed), Musik in Afrika (Berlin, 1983), pp. 95, 367.
62. Von Oppen, "'Endogene Agrarrevolution'", p. 273; Gerhard Kubik, 'Lucazi-the Fate of a Minority Language in Northwestern Zambia and Eastern Angola', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 26 (1984) p. 38; Pearson, People, p.11; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 379-380; Gerhard Kubik, 'Mehrstimmigkeit in Zentral- und Ostafrika', in Artur Simon (ed), Musik in Afrika (Berlin, 1983), pp. 95, 367.
63. Von Oppen, "'Endogene Agrarrevolution'", p. 273; Gerhard Kubik, 'Lucazi-the Fate of a Minority Language in Northwestern Zambia and Eastern Angola', Bulletin of the International Committee on Urgent Anthropological and Ethnological Research, 26 (1984) p. 38; Pearson, People, p.11; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 379-380; Gerhard Kubik, 'Mehrstimmigkeit in Zentral- und Ostafrika', in Artur Simon (ed), Musik in Afrika (Berlin, 1983), pp. 95, 367.
64. Lawrence W. Henderson, Angola. Five Centuries of Conflict (Ithaca, 1979), p. 61; Miller, 'Paradoxes', pp. 124-125; Susama Mohanty, Political Developments and Ethnic Identity in Africa. A Study of Angola Since 1960 (London, 1992), p. 22.
65. Lawrence W. Henderson, Angola. Five Centuries of Conflict (Ithaca, 1979), p. 61; Miller, 'Paradoxes', pp. 124-125; Susama Mohanty, Political Developments and Ethnic Identity in Africa. A Study of Angola Since 1960 (London, 1992), p. 22.
66. Lawrence W. Henderson, Angola. Five Centuries of Conflict (Ithaca, 1979), p. 61; Miller, 'Paradoxes', pp. 124-125; Susama Mohanty, Political Developments and Ethnic Identity in Africa. A Study of Angola Since 1960 (London, 1992), p. 22.
67. Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 372-394.
68. McCulloch, The Ovimbundu, p. 1; Linda M. Heywood, 'Unita and Ethnic Nationalism in Angola', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), pp. 47-66.
69. McCulloch, The Ovimbundu, p. 1; Linda M. Heywood, 'Unita and Ethnic Nationalism in Angola', Journal of Modern African Studies, 27, 1 (1989), pp. 47-66.
70. Patricia Hayes, ¢History of the Ovambo of Namibia, c. 1880-1935', PhD Thesis, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 17-18; Colin Leys and John S. Saul, 'Introduction', in Leys and Saul (eds), Namibia's Liberation Struggle, pp. 13-15.
71. Patricia Hayes, ¢History of the Ovambo of Namibia, c. 1880-1935', PhD Thesis, Cambridge, 1992, pp. 17-18; Colin Leys and John S. Saul, 'Introduction', in Leys and Saul (eds), Namibia's Liberation Struggle, pp. 13-15.
72. Hayes, 'History', p. 1; Jeremy Silvester, Marion Wallace, Patricia Hayes, "Trees never meet". Mobility & Containment: an overview. 1915-1946', in Patricia Hayes et al., Namibia under South African Rule. Mobility and Containment. 1915-1946 (Oxford, 1998), p. 13.
73. Hayes, 'History', p. 1; Jeremy Silvester, Marion Wallace, Patricia Hayes, "Trees never meet". Mobility & Containment: an overview. 1915-1946', in Patricia Hayes et al., Namibia under South African Rule. Mobility and Containment. 1915-1946 (Oxford, 1998), p. 13.
74. Davidson, Search for Africa, pp. 101, 179.
75. Jan Vansina, 'Sources vs. Text: an "Integrated Edition of Sources"', History in Africa, 23 (1996), p. 464.
76. Davidson, Search for Africa, pp. 101, 179.
77. Yaron, Janssen, and Maamberua, Rural Development.
78. René Pélissier, 'Campagnes Militaires au Sud-Angola (1885-1915)', Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 9 (1969), pp. 72-73; Miller. Way of Death, p. 195.
79. René Pélissier, 'Campagnes Militaires au Sud-Angola (1885-1915)', Cahiers d'Études Africaines, 9 (1969), pp. 72-73; Miller. Way of Death, p. 195.
80. W. G. Clarence-Smith, 'Mossamedes and its Hinterlands', PhD Thesis. London, 1975.
81. Th. Delachaux and Ch-E. Thiébaud, Land und Völker von Angola (Neuenburg, s.d. (journey: 1932-1933)), p. 22; Davidson, In the Eye, p. 22. In several interviews during the fieldwork Kwanyama, Ovimbundu and Cokwe slave raids were mentioned.
82. Th. Delachaux and Ch-E. Thiébaud, Land und Völker von Angola (Neuenburg, s.d. (journey: 1932-1933)), p. 22; Davidson, In the Eye, p. 22. In several interviews during the fieldwork Kwanyama, Ovimbundu and Cokwe slave raids were mentioned.
83. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 64, 77, 89, 92-94; Alfred Schachtzabel, Im Hochland von Angola. Studienreise durch den Süden Portugiesisch-West-Afrikas (Dresden, 1923), pp. 71-73; H. Baum, 'Reisebericht', in O. Warburg (ed), Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition, H. Baum (1903) (Berlin, 1903), pp. 46, 57, 84, 110.
84. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 64, 77, 89, 92-94; Alfred Schachtzabel, Im Hochland von Angola. Studienreise durch den Süden Portugiesisch-West-Afrikas (Dresden, 1923), pp. 71-73; H. Baum, 'Reisebericht', in O. Warburg (ed), Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition, H. Baum (1903) (Berlin, 1903), pp. 46, 57, 84, 110.
85. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 64, 77, 89, 92-94; Alfred Schachtzabel, Im Hochland von Angola. Studienreise durch den Süden Portugiesisch-West-Afrikas (Dresden, 1923), pp. 71-73; H. Baum, 'Reisebericht', in O. Warburg (ed), Kunene-Sambesi-Expedition, H. Baum (1903) (Berlin, 1903), pp. 46, 57, 84, 110.
86. Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 373.
87. Achim von Oppen, 'Village studies. Zur Geschichte eines Genres der Sozialforschung im südlichen und östlichen Afrika', Paideuma, 42 (1996), p. 25.
88. Meran McCulloch, The Southern Lunda and Related People (Northern Rhodesia, Belgian Congo, Angola). (London, 1951), p. 58.
89. Vansina, 'Sources vs. Text', p. 464. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 95-96; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 379. Compare with Richard Waller, 'Acceptees and Aliens. Kikuyu Settlement in Maasailand', in Thomas Spear and Richard Waller (eds), Being Masai. Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London, 1993), p. 227.
90. Vansina, 'Sources vs. Text', p. 464. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 95-96; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 379. Compare with Richard Waller, 'Acceptees and Aliens. Kikuyu Settlement in Maasailand', in Thomas Spear and Richard Waller (eds), Being Masai. Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London, 1993), p. 227.
91. Vansina, 'Sources vs. Text', p. 464. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 95-96; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 379. Compare with Richard Waller, 'Acceptees and Aliens. Kikuyu Settlement in Maasailand', in Thomas Spear and Richard Waller (eds), Being Masai. Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London, 1993), p. 227.
92. Vansina, 'Sources vs. Text', p. 464. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 95-96; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 379. Compare with Richard Waller, 'Acceptees and Aliens. Kikuyu Settlement in Maasailand', in Thomas Spear and Richard Waller (eds), Being Masai. Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (London, 1993), p. 227.
93. Davidson, Search, p. 190; Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 97-99.
94. Davidson, Search, p. 190; Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 97-99.
95. Ranger, 'Revisited', p. 81.
96. Davidson, In the Eye, pp. 51-52, 128-129, 134.
97. Ibid., p. 141.
98. Schönfelder, 'Zu Fuss', p. 4.
99. Gerald J. Bender, Angola under the Portuguese. The Myth and the Reality (London, 1978), pp. 150-153, 212, 232; Davidson, In the Eye, p. 149.
100. Gerald J. Bender, Angola under the Portuguese. The Myth and the Reality (London, 1978), pp. 150-153, 212, 232; Davidson, In the Eye, p. 149.
101. See note 2 above.
102. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 89-90.
103. Schachtzabel, Im Hochland, pp. 57-58.
104. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, pp. 90-91.
105. Ibid., pp. 17, 92-93.
106. Pearson, People, p. 15; The Cheke Cultural Writers, The History and Cultural Life of the Mbunda Speaking Peoples (Lusaka, 1994), pp. 161-162.
107. Pearson, People, p. 15; The Cheke Cultural Writers, The History and Cultural Life of the Mbunda Speaking Peoples (Lusaka, 1994), pp. 161-162.
108. Manfred Kuder, Angola. Eine geographische, soziale und wirtschaftliche Landeskunde (Darmstadt, 1970), p. 229.
109. Allison Butler Herrick et al., Area Handbook for Angola (Washington, 1967), p. 138.
110. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
111. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
112. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
113. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
114. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
115. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
116. Lawrence W. Henderson, 'Protestantism: a Tribal Religion', in Robert T. Parsons (ed), Windows on Africa (Leiden, 1971); Mbtmbliyaya Ku lela (Nairobi, 1963) (Rev. Bailey, who arrived in Moxiko in 1912, had earlier translated parts of the New Testament into Mbunda: The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161); Domingos Vieira Baião, Dicionário Ganguela-Português. Língua Falada nos Regiões Cubango, Nheinba e Luchaze (Lisbon, 1940); Emil Pearson, Ngangela-English Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1970); Emil Pearson, English-Ngangela Dictionary (Cuernavaca, 1973). Also see August Bierfert, 25 Jahre bei den Wadiriku am Okawango (Hünfeld, 1938), p. 73.
117. The Cheke Cultural Writers, Mbunda Speaking Peoples, p. 161.
118. Vail, 'Introduction', pp. 11, 17.
119. Henderson, Angola, p. 63.
120. See Miller, Way of Death.
121. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, p. 19.
122. Antunes Valente, 'Problemas da Emigração de Trabalhadores Rurais Angolanos Para os Territories do Sudoeste Africano, da República da Africa do Sul e da Zambia', Portugal em África, 147 (1968), pp. 187-192; Bosch, 'Die Shambiu', p. 50; Bruwer, Matriliniêre Orde, pp. 16-17.
123. Antunes Valente, 'Problemas da Emigração de Trabalhadores Rurais Angolanos Para os Territories do Sudoeste Africano, da República da Africa do Sul e da Zambia', Portugal em África, 147 (1968), pp. 187-192; Bosch, 'Die Shambiu', p. 50; Bruwer, Matriliniêre Orde, pp. 16-17.
124. Antunes Valente, 'Problemas da Emigração de Trabalhadores Rurais Angolanos Para os Territories do Sudoeste Africano, da República da Africa do Sul e da Zambia', Portugal em África, 147 (1968), pp. 187-192; Bosch, 'Die Shambiu', p. 50; Bruwer, Matriliniêre Orde, pp. 16-17.
125. R. Philpolt, 'The Mulobezi-Mongu Labour Route', Rhodes-Livingstone Journal, 3 (1945), pp. 50-54.
126. Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 375, also pp. 381-383.
127. John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: the Anatomy of an Explosion (1950-1962) (Cambridge, London, 1969), pp. 116-118; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 390. However, in Zambia, many Lucazi speakers said Luvale was their mother tongue. See Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama', p. 164, referring to Mubanga E. Kashoki, 'The Language Situation in Zambia', in Sirapi Ohannesian and Mubanga E. Kashoki (eds), Language in Zambia (London, 1978), p. 23.
128. John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: the Anatomy of an Explosion (1950-1962) (Cambridge, London, 1969), pp. 116-118; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 390. However, in Zambia, many Lucazi speakers said Luvale was their mother tongue. See Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama', p. 164, referring to Mubanga E. Kashoki, 'The Language Situation in Zambia', in Sirapi Ohannesian and Mubanga E. Kashoki (eds), Language in Zambia (London, 1978), p. 23.
129. John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: the Anatomy of an Explosion (1950-1962) (Cambridge, London, 1969), pp. 116-118; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 390. However, in Zambia, many Lucazi speakers said Luvale was their mother tongue. See Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama', p. 164, referring to Mubanga E. Kashoki, 'The Language Situation in Zambia', in Sirapi Ohannesian and Mubanga E. Kashoki (eds), Language in Zambia (London, 1978), p. 23.
130. John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution: the Anatomy of an Explosion (1950-1962) (Cambridge, London, 1969), pp. 116-118; Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', p. 390. However, in Zambia, many Lucazi speakers said Luvale was their mother tongue. See Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama', p. 164, referring to Mubanga E. Kashoki, 'The Language Situation in Zambia', in Sirapi Ohannesian and Mubanga E. Kashoki (eds), Language in Zambia (London, 1978), p. 23.
131. Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 378-382.
132. Robert J. Gordon, Mines, Masters and Migrants: Life in a Namibian Compound (Johannesburg, 1977), pp. 68-69.
133. Pearson, People, pp.56, 113.
134. Ibid., p. 58.
135. Sec note 41 above.
136. Compare Papstein, 'From Ethnic Identity', pp. 378-379.
137. During fieldwork the English question: 'Where are you from?' was often translated as 'Ndonga'?', the word used for river. Also see Kubik, 'Das "ethnische" Panorama', pp. 182-183.
138. Brinkman, 'Town, country, bush'. Also see von Oppen, 'Village studies', pp. 18-19, 25.
139. Brinkman, 'Town, country, bush'. Also see von Oppen, 'Village studies', pp. 18-19, 25.
140. For example, see interview 2, with a group of people. This pan of the discussion was held by a woman and three men. The elderly woman had one year of formal schooling. She worked for some time as a laundress for the Portuguese, but had been a farmer for most of her life. One man, who was born in 1959, had finished primary school and had worked as a tailor and fisherman. He is now unemployed. A man, born in 1968, has received four years of schooling and was also unemployed. Another man, born in 1954, had 9 years of schooling and worked as a government clerk in Menongue (Angola). He was a visitor to the household. Another four men, one woman, and two boys were present during the interview (those present always exclude my female assistant and myself). All discussants were born near Kuito Kuanavale. The interview was held in Kehemu on 23 June 1997.
141. For example, see interview 3, held with a couple bom by the Kuieio, the man in 1930, the woman in 1950. During the initial stage of the war they had fled to Zambia and stayed there until 1990 when they moved to Namibia. The man attended Bible school for some years, the woman had no formal education. For both farming forms the main means of subsistence. The couple has six sons and a daughter. The interview was held in Kehemu, on 23 July 1997 and was attended by their two youngest sons. And interview 4, with a man born in 1929 in Muiva (probably near Kuito Kuanavale); a Jehova Witness without formal education, who lives as a farmer. The interview was held in Kehemu on 13 September 1997 in the presence of his wife.
142. For example, see interview 3 and interview 5 with two men. The younger was born in 1950 in Kunjamba and works as a bricklayer and farmer. He had had no formal schooling and belongs to the Roman Catholic church. Footnote 95 continued The other man was born around 1920 near Kuito Kuanavale and is a farmer without formal schooling who belongs to the Baptist church. The interview took pbce on 3 September 1997 in Kaisosi and was attended by 3 women and a man, who all belong to the household of the elderly man.
143. Schönfelder, 'Zu Fuss'; Clarence-Smith, Slaves, p. 70.
144. Schönfelder, 'Zu Fuss'; Clarence-Smith, Slaves, p. 70.
145. See note 29 above.
146. John Marcum, The Angolan Revolution Exile Politics and Guerrilla Warfare (1962-1976) (Cambridge, 1978), pp. 268-269.
147. David Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism in Angola & Mozambique (London, 1992), pp. 47, 50, 84.
148. W. Martin James, A Political History of the Civil War in Angola, 1974-1990 (New Brunswick, 1992), pp. 192-193; Mohanty, Political Development, pp. 181-182; Eirola, Bradley, Laitinen, Kavango, p. 18.
149. W. Martin James, A Political History of the Civil War in Angola, 1974-1990 (New Brunswick, 1992), pp. 192-193; Mohanty, Political Development, pp. 181-182; Eirola, Bradley, Laitinen, Kavango, p. 18.
150. W. Martin James, A Political History of the Civil War in Angola, 1974-1990 (New Brunswick, 1992), pp. 192-193; Mohanty, Political Development, pp. 181-182; Eirola, Bradley, Laitinen, Kavango, p. 18.
151. Christine von Gamier, Kavango, Where Are You Going? (Windhoek, 1986), p. 9; Martha Margrietha Lategan, 'Sending - en Staatsonderwijs vir die Inheemse Bevolking van die Kavango. 'n Histories-Pedagogiese Besinning', MA Thesis, South Africa, 1980, p. 18; Yaron, Janssen and Maamberua, Rural development, p. 6 give an estimate of 30,000-40,000 refugees in a total population of 137,000 (Census 1991).
152. Christine von Gamier, Kavango, Where Are You Going? (Windhoek, 1986), p. 9; Martha Margrietha Lategan, 'Sending - en Staatsonderwijs vir die Inheemse Bevolking van die Kavango. 'n Histories-Pedagogiese Besinning', MA Thesis, South Africa, 1980, p. 18; Yaron, Janssen and Maamberua, Rural development, p. 6 give an estimate of 30,000-40,000 refugees in a total population of 137,000 (Census 1991).
153. Christine von Gamier, Kavango, Where Are You Going? (Windhoek, 1986), p. 9; Martha Margrietha Lategan, 'Sending - en Staatsonderwijs vir die Inheemse Bevolking van die Kavango. 'n Histories-Pedagogiese Besinning', MA Thesis, South Africa, 1980, p. 18; Yaron, Janssen and Maamberua, Rural development, p. 6 give an estimate of 30,000-40,000 refugees in a total population of 137,000 (Census 1991).
154. At present there is a refugee camp in Osire near Otjiwarongo.
155. There is confusion about the exact date of these removals. As some refugees who came in 1976 indicated having lived in Mangarangandja, the removals possibly took place at the end of or soon after 1976. A year report suggests 1978: National Archives (Windhoek) NA 7/1/1: Jaarverslag 1978, Departement van Onderwijs, p. 1. The town clerk of Rundu placed the events in 1971-1972 (Interview 6, with Mr L. Muhepa, Rundu, 25 September 1997).
156. Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism, p. 106; Susan Brown, 'Diplomacy by Other Means -SWAPO's Liberation War', in Leys and Saul (eds), Namibia's Liberation Struggle, pp. 24, 32, 34.
157. Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism, p. 106; Susan Brown, 'Diplomacy by Other Means -SWAPO's Liberation War', in Leys and Saul (eds), Namibia's Liberation Struggle, pp. 24, 32, 34.
158. Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism, p. 106; Karl Maier, Angola. Promises and Lies (Rivonia, 1996), p. 25.
159. Birmingham, Frontline Nationalism, p. 106; Karl Maier, Angola. Promises and Lies (Rivonia, 1996), p. 25.
160. David Birmingham, 'Review of Karl Maier, Angola. Promises and Lies', Journal of Southern African Studies, 23, 3 (1997), p. 532.
161. David Lush, Last Steps to Uhuru. An Eye- Witness Account of Namibia 's Transition to Independence (Windhoek, 1993), p. 174; The Namibian, (4 September 1989), p. 1; Ibid. (8 November 1989), pp. 1, 3; Ibid. (9 November 1989), pp. 1,3; Lionel Cliffe e.a., The Transition to Independence in Namibia (Boulder, London, 1994), p. 119.
162. David Lush, Last Steps to Uhuru. An Eye- Witness Account of Namibia 's Transition to Independence (Windhoek, 1993), p. 174; The Namibian, (4 September 1989), p. 1; Ibid. (8 November 1989), pp. 1, 3; Ibid. (9 November 1989), pp. 1,3; Lionel Cliffe e.a., The Transition to Independence in Namibia (Boulder, London, 1994), p. 119.
163. David Lush, Last Steps to Uhuru. An Eye- Witness Account of Namibia 's Transition to Independence (Windhoek, 1993), p. 174; The Namibian, (4 September 1989), p. 1; Ibid. (8 November 1989), pp. 1, 3; Ibid. (9 November 1989), pp. 1,3; Lionel Cliffe e.a., The Transition to Independence in Namibia (Boulder, London, 1994), p. 119.
164. David Lush, Last Steps to Uhuru. An Eye- Witness Account of Namibia 's Transition to Independence (Windhoek, 1993), p. 174; The Namibian, (4 September 1989), p. 1; Ibid. (8 November 1989), pp. 1, 3; Ibid. (9 November 1989), pp. 1,3; Lionel Cliffe e.a., The Transition to Independence in Namibia (Boulder, London, 1994), p. 119.
165. David Lush, Last Steps to Uhuru. An Eye- Witness Account of Namibia 's Transition to Independence (Windhoek, 1993), p. 174; The Namibian, (4 September 1989), p. 1; Ibid. (8 November 1989), pp. 1, 3; Ibid. (9 November 1989), pp. 1,3; Lionel Cliffe e.a., The Transition to Independence in Namibia (Boulder, London, 1994), p. 119.
166. Rosemary Preston, 'The Integration of Returned Exiles, Former Combatants and Other War-affected Namibians' (NISER Report, Windhoek, 1993), pp. 10-13.
167. Christopher Pycroft, 'Angola - 'The Forgotten Tragedy', Journal of Southern African Studies, 20, 2 (1992), pp. 247-248.
168. Interview 7, with a man held in Windhoek, 9 May 1996. He was about 30 years old, born in the Kuando-Kubango Province in Angola. He has had considerable education and works as a nurse. The interview was conducted in English; The Namibian (29 July 1996), p. 3; Human Rights Watch, Angola. Arms Trade and Violations of the Laws of War Since the 1992 Elections (New York, 1994), pp. 54-55.
169. Interview 7, with a man held in Windhoek, 9 May 1996. He was about 30 years old, born in the Kuando-Kubango Province in Angola. He has had considerable education and works as a nurse. The interview was conducted in English; The Namibian (29 July 1996), p. 3; Human Rights Watch, Angola. Arms Trade and Violations of the Laws of War Since the 1992 Elections (New York, 1994), pp. 54-55.
170. 'Agreement on the Joint Commission of Security of the Common Borders Between the People's Republic of Angola and the Republic of Namibia'; 'Agreement on the Movement of Goods and Persons across the Common Borders Between the People's Republic of Angola and Republic of Namibia (1990)'.
171. Human Rights Watch, Angola, 54; NSHR, '"Shoot Them": Practical Consequences of the De Facto State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 29 March 1995, and NSHR, 'UNAVEM III Nightmare: Additional Practical Consequences of the Unconstitutional State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 20 April 1995, containing State House Statement: 'Indefinite Closure of Namibian/Angolan Border in the Okavango Region', 31 March 1995.
172. Human Rights Watch, Angola, 54; NSHR, '"Shoot Them": Practical Consequences of the De Facto State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 29 March 1995, and NSHR, 'UNAVEM III Nightmare: Additional Practical Consequences of the Unconstitutional State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 20 April 1995, containing State House Statement: 'Indefinite Closure of Namibian/Angolan Border in the Okavango Region', 31 March 1995.
173. Human Rights Watch, Angola, 54; NSHR, '"Shoot Them": Practical Consequences of the De Facto State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 29 March 1995, and NSHR, 'UNAVEM III Nightmare: Additional Practical Consequences of the Unconstitutional State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 20 April 1995, containing State House Statement: 'Indefinite Closure of Namibian/Angolan Border in the Okavango Region', 31 March 1995.
174. Human Rights Watch, Angola, 54; NSHR, '"Shoot Them": Practical Consequences of the De Facto State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 29 March 1995, and NSHR, 'UNAVEM III Nightmare: Additional Practical Consequences of the Unconstitutional State of Emergency in Kavango', Press Conference, 20 April 1995, containing State House Statement: 'Indefinite Closure of Namibian/Angolan Border in the Okavango Region', 31 March 1995.
175. Also see Peter Amutenya and Eline van der Linden, 'The Namibia-Angola Border Fence and its Socio-Economic Implications: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission, 17-20 June 1992', NEPRU Working Papers, no. 34, Windhoek, 1993, pp. 7-8.
176. In this the situation of Angolan refugees who moved to the Namibian Ovambo area may be very different. Refugees in this area are also blamed for all society's evils, but are far less conspicuous, sharing language, family names, relatives and cultural expressions. Compare Ha and Hutu in Tanzania (Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 166-167). Nyemba immigrants, by contrast, do not share language and culture with the host societies: some do not speak Kwangali after having lived in Namibia for twenty years.
177. Mark Leopold, 'Drawing a Margin: Violence, Knowledge and History on the West Nile', Paper presented in 1996. Received by the courtesy of Prof. Dr Heike Behrend.
178. Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 4-8, quoting Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, 1973), p. 286.
179. Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 4-8, quoting Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, 1973), p. 286.
180. Compare with Heike Behrend, 'Ethnicity and the Militarization of Refugees: the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF)', Paper presented at seminar on Ethnic Soldiering, Leiden, January 1995.
181. The Namibian, (10 July 1996), p. 2. During both fieldwork periods, informants expressed grave concern over the raids.
182. Interview 8, with a woman born in 1950 near Kuito Kuanavale. A farmer without formal schooling, she and her husband, the elderly man of interview 5, came to Namibia in the 1960s. This interview took place in Kaisosi on 5 September 1997; she was also present during interview 5. Pearson, Ngangela-English, p. 232.
183. For example, interview 5.
184. Interview 9, brief conversation with middle-aged man who did not want to be interviewed as he 'was not an Angolan', in Kehemu, 14 June 1996; Herbert Ndango Diaz, ¢Definitive Edition and Analysis of the Tjakova Myth of the Vakavango', PhD Thesis, Cape Town, s.d. (after 1990), p. 5.
185. Compare with Tim Allen and Hubert Morsink (eds), When Refugees Go Home (London, 1994), p. 7.
186. Interview 10, with a man on 27 August 1996 in Kaisosi. He was born near Kuito Kuanavale in 1919 or 1911 (perhaps later). He speaks Nkangala, is a member of the Baptist church and had fought in four armies before his retirement.
187. Interview 11, with a young woman (about 25 years old), Windhoek, 23 May 1996.
188. Interview 12, with a woman born in 1947 by the Kuei, a farmer without formal schooling. The interview was held in Kaisosi on 11 June 1996 in the presence of two women, a man, and some children.
189. Interview 8.
190. Ibid.
191. Interview 7.
192. For example: interview 13, with a woman born in 1959 in Mavinga. She is a business-woman without formal schooling. The interview took place on 6 June 1996 in Kaisosi.
193. Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 155, 252-253, referring to Marcel Mauss, 'La Nation et l'Internationalisme', in V. Karady (ed), Oeuvres. Vol 3. Cohésion Sociale et Divisions de la Sociologie (Paris, 1969), pp. 629-630.
194. Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 155, 252-253, referring to Marcel Mauss, 'La Nation et l'Internationalisme', in V. Karady (ed), Oeuvres. Vol 3. Cohésion Sociale et Divisions de la Sociologie (Paris, 1969), pp. 629-630.
195. Compare with Terence Ranger, 'New Approaches to African Landscape', Paper presented to the Conference on Africa and Modernity, Berlin, 1997, pp. 17-22. Received by courtesy of Prof. Dr Heike Behrend and kind permission from Prof. Terence Ranger.
196. Interview 14, with a woman born in Mavinga, about 55 years old. She is a farmer and was a laundress for the Portuguese. The interview was held in Kaisosi on 26 August 1996.
197. Interview 15, with a woman born by the Longa, about 55 years ago. The interview was held in Kehemu, 2 August 1996. She had spent a long time living in the bush under UNITA control. The interview was attended by three other women and a man sitting somewhat further away.
198. Interview 10 and interview 16, with the woman whose particulars are given under interview 2. This interview was held on 13 September 1997 in Kehemu.
199. Malkki, Purity and Exile, pp. 193-194.