South African diplomacy and security complex theory

Round Table

Volumn , Issue 352, 1999, Pages 585-620

  Muller, Marie ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA   (South Africa)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS; FOREIGN POLICY; GEOPOLITICS; SECURITY THREAT;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0032721279     PISSN: 00358533     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/750459617     Document Type: Review

References (240)

1. For a overview of the work of the Copenhagen School see Jef Huysmans, 'Revisiting Copenhagen: or, on the creative development of a security studies agenda in Europe', European Journal of International Relations, Vol 4, No 4, 1998, pp 479-505.
2. The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) at Midrand are amongst the establishments publishing regularly on these issues, in the form of its monograph scries and its African Security Review.
3. Unpublished draft of chapter 10 of a volume previously titled Regions Set Free - The World Order?
4. Gerrit Olivier and Deon Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', Business & the Contemporary World, Vol IX, No 2, 1997, pp 365-366.
5. Previous papers an articles by the present author deal in more detail with some of the earlier developments: 'Rejoining the world: South Africa and the diplomacy of reintegration', presented for the Panel on Diplomacy in Theory and Practice, at the 37th Annual International Studies Association (ISA) Convention, San Diego, CA, USA, 16-20 April 1996; 'The foreign ministry of South Africa: from isolation to integration to coherency', presented at the Conference on Foreign Ministries: change and adaptation, London, UK, 5-7 February 1997; 'Current developments in South African diplomacy', presented at the International Conference on Modern Diplomacy, Malta, 12-15 February 1998; 'Developments in the conduct of South African diplomacy', South African Yearbook of International Law (SAYIL), Vol 23, 1998.
6. Previous papers an articles by the present author deal in more detail with some of the earlier developments: 'Rejoining the world: South Africa and the diplomacy of reintegration', presented for the Panel on Diplomacy in Theory and Practice, at the 37th Annual International Studies Association (ISA) Convention, San Diego, CA, USA, 16-20 April 1996; 'The foreign ministry of South Africa: from isolation to integration to coherency', presented at the Conference on Foreign Ministries: change and adaptation, London, UK, 5-7 February 1997; 'Current developments in South African diplomacy', presented at the International Conference on Modern Diplomacy, Malta, 12-15 February 1998; 'Developments in the conduct of South African diplomacy', South African Yearbook of International Law (SAYIL), Vol 23, 1998.
7. Previous papers an articles by the present author deal in more detail with some of the earlier developments: 'Rejoining the world: South Africa and the diplomacy of reintegration', presented for the Panel on Diplomacy in Theory and Practice, at the 37th Annual International Studies Association (ISA) Convention, San Diego, CA, USA, 16-20 April 1996; 'The foreign ministry of South Africa: from isolation to integration to coherency', presented at the Conference on Foreign Ministries: change and adaptation, London, UK, 5-7 February 1997; 'Current developments in South African diplomacy', presented at the International Conference on Modern Diplomacy, Malta, 12-15 February 1998; 'Developments in the conduct of South African diplomacy', South African Yearbook of International Law (SAYIL), Vol 23, 1998.
8. Previous papers an articles by the present author deal in more detail with some of the earlier developments: 'Rejoining the world: South Africa and the diplomacy of reintegration', presented for the Panel on Diplomacy in Theory and Practice, at the 37th Annual International Studies Association (ISA) Convention, San Diego, CA, USA, 16-20 April 1996; 'The foreign ministry of South Africa: from isolation to integration to coherency', presented at the Conference on Foreign Ministries: change and adaptation, London, UK, 5-7 February 1997; 'Current developments in South African diplomacy', presented at the International Conference on Modern Diplomacy, Malta, 12-15 February 1998; 'Developments in the conduct of South African diplomacy', South African Yearbook of International Law (SAYIL), Vol 23, 1998.
9. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order? Reference is to Barry Buzan, Peoples, States and Fear, 2nd edition, Harvester Wheatsheaf, London, 1991.
10. Barry Buzan, Ole Waever and Jaap de Wilde, Secutity: A New Framework for Analysis, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO, 1998.
11. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order?
12. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order?
13. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order?
14. Buzan explains that not all regions qualify as security complexes. There are two other possibilities: overlay, where outside powers have penetrated to the extent that they have substantial military forces based in the region, and the main security dynamics of the region are shaped by the rivalries of the outside powers rather than by the interests and interactions of the local states; and unstructured security regions, where units are too weak as powers to generate security interdependence on a regional level, that is units are not each other's main security concern as the security constellation is dominated by the domestic level.
15. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order?
16. Unpublished draft of chapter 1 of a volume provisionally titled Regions Set Free - The Emerging World Order?
17. Such possible changes are briefly explained by Buzan in the unpublished draft, above.
18. Marie Muller, 'South Africa Crisscrosses the Nuclear Threshold', in William Gutteridge (ed), South Africa's Defense and Security into the 21st century, Dartsmouth Publishing, Aldershot, 1996.
19. Muller, 'South Africa Crisscrosses the Nuclear Threshold'.
20. See the regular foreign policy and practice feature in the South African Yearbook of International Law (SAYIL), 1976-1994, University of South Africa, VerLoren van Themaat Centre for Public Law Studies. Pretoria.
21. Greg Mills (ed), From Pariah to Participant. South Africa's Evolving Foreign Relations, 1990-1994, SAIIA, Johannesburg, 1994.
22. Jack Spence in the Weekly Mail & Guardian, 25-31 August 1995.
23. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
24. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
25. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
26. See for example: Greg Mills, 'South Africa's foreign policy: the year in review', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs, 1997, The South African Institute of International Affairs, Johannesburg, 1997;
27. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism'; Hussein Solomon (ed), Fairy God-mother, Hegemon or Partner? In Search of a South African Foreign Policy, Halfway House, ISS Monograph Series, No 13, May 1997.
28. See Janis van der Westhuizen, 'South Africa's emergence as a middle power', Third World Quarterly, Vol 19, No 3, 1998, p 447.
29. The Citizen, 26 August 1998, p 12; The Natal Witness, 28 August 1998, p 12.
30. The Citizen, 26 August 1998, p 12; The Natal Witness, 28 August 1998, p 12.
31. Sowetan, 21 July 1998, p 6.
32. DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996 (MB1/97, June 1997), published by the Multilateral Coordination Centre of the Multilateral Branch of the DFA, p 6.
33. DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996, p 6.
34. Document compiled by the Directorate Non-proliferation and Disarmament (DNPD), Department of Foreign Affairs, July 1997.
35. Details of the criteria and procedure involved, is summarized in the Guide to the Terms of Reference and Conventional Arms Control in South Africa, issued by the Directorate for Conventional Arms Control, Office of the Secretary for Defence, Pretoria, 1 May 1996. Also see Tyler Robinson and Jeffrey Boutwell, 'South Africa's arms industry: a new era of democratic accountability?', Armed Forces & Society, Vol 22, No 4, Summer 1996, pp 599-618.
36. Details of the criteria and procedure involved, is summarized in the Guide to the Terms of Reference and Conventional Arms Control in South Africa, issued by the Directorate for Conventional Arms Control, Office of the Secretary for Defence, Pretoria, 1 May 1996. Also see Tyler Robinson and Jeffrey Boutwell, 'South Africa's arms industry: a new era of democratic accountability?', Armed Forces & Society, Vol 22, No 4, Summer 1996, pp 599-618.
37. See The Sunday Times, 19 January 1997, p 6; Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', pp 373-374. For a fuller discussion of South Africa's current position as an arms supplier and the problems that resulted from this, see John Battersby, 'South Africa's arms sales', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1998/9, pp 251-256; Moses B. Khanyile, 'South Africa's Arms Transfers in 1997: Morality versus Reality', paper delivered at the research colloquium of the South African Political Studies Association, Hammanskraal, 9-11 September 1998.
38. See The Sunday Times, 19 January 1997, p 6; Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', pp 373-374. For a fuller discussion of South Africa's current position as an arms supplier and the problems that resulted from this, see John Battersby, 'South Africa's arms sales', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1998/9, pp 251-256; Moses B. Khanyile, 'South Africa's Arms Transfers in 1997: Morality versus Reality', paper delivered at the research colloquium of the South African Political Studies Association, Hammanskraal, 9-11 September 1998.
39. See The Sunday Times, 19 January 1997, p 6; Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', pp 373-374. For a fuller discussion of South Africa's current position as an arms supplier and the problems that resulted from this, see John Battersby, 'South Africa's arms sales', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1998/9, pp 251-256; Moses B. Khanyile, 'South Africa's Arms Transfers in 1997: Morality versus Reality', paper delivered at the research colloquium of the South African Political Studies Association, Hammanskraal, 9-11 September 1998.
40. See The Sunday Times, 19 January 1997, p 6; Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', pp 373-374. For a fuller discussion of South Africa's current position as an arms supplier and the problems that resulted from this, see John Battersby, 'South Africa's arms sales', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1998/9, pp 251-256; Moses B. Khanyile, 'South Africa's Arms Transfers in 1997: Morality versus Reality', paper delivered at the research colloquium of the South African Political Studies Association, Hammanskraal, 9-11 September 1998.
41. Pretoria News, 13 May 1998, p 2; The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
42. Pretoria News, 13 May 1998, p 2; The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
43. Compare Die Burger, 10 June 1998, p 2, for a report on South Africa's joint declaration with seven other nations, regarding nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament.
44. See for example Savita Pande, India and the Nuclear Test Ban, Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi, 1996.
45. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
46. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
47. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
48. Deon Geldenhuys, Isolated States: A Comparative Analysis, Jonathan Ball, Johannesburg, 1990.
49. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
50. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 367 cite actions of President Mandela and Deputy President Thabo Mbeki, including the creation of a Binational Commission between the USA and South Africa under the chairmanship of the two Vice Presidents and the starting of negotiations with the European Union on a free trade agreement and accession to the Lomé Convention, as proof of this.
51. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 366.
52. See Roland Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise -1997 - an analysis', South African Yearbook of International Law, 1997, VerLoren van Themaat Centre for Public Law Studies, University of South Africa, Pretoria, for a brief analysis of the issue relating to Libya.
53. Mail & Guardian, 27 March 1998, p 3.
54. Sowetan, 27 April 1998, p 11.
55. Sowetan, 27 April 1998, p 11.
56. Sowetan, 27 April 1998, p 11.
57. Sowetan, 20 April 1998, p 10.
58. Sowetan, 20 April 1998, p 10.
59. Sowetan, 20 April 1998, p 10.
60. Sowetan, 20 April 1998, p 10.
61. Sunday Tribune, 5 April 1998, p 1.
62. Sunday Tribune, 5 April 1998. p 1.
63. Sunday Tribune, 5 April 1998, p 1.
64. The Sunday Independent, 2 August 1998, p 1. The other three countries were Gambia, Bhutan and Vanuatu. In the November 1998 Foreign Affairs List, the Libyan mission is described as the Libyan Arab People's Bureau, but the head of mission is identified as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary.
65. The Sunday Independent, 2 August 1998, p 1; The Citizen, 3 August 1998, p 1. No mission is listed for North Korea, nor for Gambia, Bhutan and Vanuatu.
66. The Sunday Independent, 2 August 1998, p 1; The Citizen, 3 August 1998, p 1. No mission is listed for North Korea, nor for Gambia, Bhutan and Vanuatu.
67. The Citizen, 3 August 1998, p 1.
68. The Citizen, 3 August 1998, p 1; Die Volksblad, 3 August 1998, p 1.
69. The Citizen, 3 August 1998, p 1; Die Volksblad, 3 August 1998, p 1.
70. Die Volksblad, 3 August 1998, p 1.
71. The Citizen, 19 February 1998, p 8.
72. The Citizen, 19 February 1998, p 8.
73. See for example: SAIIA Research Group (eds), South Africa and the Two Chinas Dilemma, South African Institute of International Affairs & Foundation of Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, 1995; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the Two Chinas', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1996, pp 165-171; Jean-Jacques Cornish, 'New South Africa and China', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 250-256; Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 - an analysis'.
74. See for example: SAIIA Research Group (eds), South Africa and the Two Chinas Dilemma, South African Institute of International Affairs & Foundation of Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, 1995; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the Two Chinas', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1996, pp 165-171; Jean-Jacques Cornish, 'New South Africa and China', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 250-256; Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 - an analysis'.
75. See for example: SAIIA Research Group (eds), South Africa and the Two Chinas Dilemma, South African Institute of International Affairs & Foundation of Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, 1995; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the Two Chinas', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1996, pp 165-171; Jean-Jacques Cornish, 'New South Africa and China', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 250-256; Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 - an analysis'.
76. See for example: SAIIA Research Group (eds), South Africa and the Two Chinas Dilemma, South African Institute of International Affairs & Foundation of Global Dialogue, Johannesburg, 1995; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the Two Chinas', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1996, pp 165-171; Jean-Jacques Cornish, 'New South Africa and China', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 250-256; Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 - an analysis'.
77. See Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 -an analysis'. Also see the discussion of overseas missions below.
78. In essence multi-track diplomacy could include both preventative diplomacy and peacemaking. 'Multi-track diplomacy is the name given to the involvement of a variety of "actors" (ie governments, agencies, regional organizations such as the Organization of African Unity, non-governmental organizations, citizens groups, civic leaders) at different levels of a conflict, with the intention of bringing greater accountability and adherence to human rights and humanitarian laws by all sides. This approach is based on the idea that different efforts in peacemaking can be complementary to each other and part of a larger framework of initiatives.' (Kumar Rupesinghe, The General Principles of Multi-Track Diplomacy, Preventive Diplomacy Series, No 2, African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, Durban).
79. Pretoria News, 8 May 1998, p 6.
80. Pretoria News, 8 May 1998, p 6.
81. The Star, 30 April 1998, p 12. For a more positive response to the mission, see: The Natal Witness, 12 May 1998, p 6.
82. The Star, 30 April 1998, p 12. For a more positive response to the mission, see: The Natal Witness, 12 May 1998, p 6.
83. The Citizen, 15 January 1999, p 8.
84. The Citizen, 15 January 1999, p 8.
85. City Press, 17 January 1999, p 10.
86. The session was attended by the author.
87. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', in Walter Carlsnaes and Marie Muller (eds), Change and South African External Relations, International Thomson Publishing, Midrand, 1997, pp 55-56.
88. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 56.
89. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 57.
90. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', pp 57-58.
91. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 58.
92. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 60.
93. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 62.
94. Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
95. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', pp 59-60.
96. Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
97. Approved Organisational Structure of the Department of Foreign Affairs, 29 September 1997.
98. Approved Organisational Structure of the Department of Foreign Affairs, 20 November 1997.
99. See the Approved Organisational Structure of the Department of Foreign Affairs as set out in various charts dated between September and December 1997 - hereafter referred to as 'chart' or 'charts'.
100. See the chart dated 22 September 1997. The January 1998 change was conveyed to the author by two Foreign Service Officers in personal and telephonic conversations respectively.
101. Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
102. Compare the official telephone list of the DFA, 4 August 1998.
103. The Citizen, 15 January 1999, p 8: City Press, 17 January 1999, p 10.
104. The Citizen, 15 January 1999, p 8: City Press, 17 January 1999, p 10.
105. For a more detailed discussion of the process, see Muller, 'The Diplomacy of Reintegration: South Africa back into the fold', in Jan Melissen (ed), Diplomatic Innovation, Macmillan, London, 1998 (forthcoming); Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions'.
106. For a more detailed discussion of the process, see Muller, 'The Diplomacy of Reintegration: South Africa back into the fold', in Jan Melissen (ed), Diplomatic Innovation, Macmillan, London, 1998 (forthcoming); Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions'.
107. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
108. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
109. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
110. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
111. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
112. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
113. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
114. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
115. See for example: Die Burger, 7 January 1997, p 7; The Sunday Times, 12 January 1997, p 2; Rapport, 4 May 1997, p 8; Beeld, 16 July 1997, p 10; Sowetan, 8 August 1997, p 2; Rapport, 17 August 1997, p 7; The Citizen, 16 September 1997, p 19; Rapport, 21 September 1997, p 6; The Sunday Independent, 28 September 1997, p 2.
116. Beeld, 15 May 1997, p 15; Saturday Star, 13 September 1997, p 2; Sunday Tribune, 9 November 1997, p 14.
117. Beeld, 15 May 1997, p 15; Saturday Star, 13 September 1997, p 2; Sunday Tribune, 9 November 1997, p 14.
118. Beeld, 15 May 1997, p 15; Saturday Star, 13 September 1997, p 2; Sunday Tribune, 9 November 1997, p 14.
119. The Cape Times, 28 May 1998, p 5.
120. Business Day, 1 June 1998, p 11; The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
121. Business Day, 1 June 1998, p 11; The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
122. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
123. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2. South African foreign policy after the transition has often been criticized for not being consistent.
124. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
125. The Star, 2 July 1998, p 2.
126. Rapport, 14 December 1998, p 8.
127. Rapport, 14 December 1998, p 8.
128. Rapport, 14 December 1998, p 8.
129. Mail & Guardian, 5-11 December 1998, p 7.
130. Muller, 'The institutional dimension: The Department of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Missions', p 66.
131. See Rapport, 24 January 1999, p 23.
132. Olivier and Geldenhuys, 'South Africa's foreign policy: from idealism to pragmatism', p 367.
133. Charts dated November-December 1997, as well as Mission Address and Telephone List of the DFA, 27 January 1997. According to the (Official) South Africa Yearbook 1997 (published by the South African Communication Service, Pretoria), p 213, there was also a multilateral mission in Gaborone, accredited to the Southern African Development Community (SADC). However, this was not reflected in the charts of late 1997.
134. In the sequence listed by the DFA: Ivory Coast, Senegal, Uganda, Ghana, Tanzania, Zaire, Algeria, Botswana, Nigeria, Egypt, Zimbabwe, Gabon, Mozambique, Mauritius, Malawi, Lesotho, Morocco, Angola, Swaziland, Tunisia, Zambia, Kenya, Namibia (Walvis Bay) and Namibia (Windhoek).
135. In the sequence listed by the DFA: Greece, Germany (Bonn), Romania, Germany (Berlin), Brazil, Hungary, Switzerland, Slovak Republic, Argentina, USA (Beverly Hills), Belgium, Venezuela, USA (Chicago), Germany (Hamburg), Peru, Denmark, Cuba, Portugal, Ireland, Finland, UK, Germany (Frankfurt), Ukraine, Spain, France (Marseilles), Canada (Montreal), Norway, Mexico, Russian Federation, Canada (Ottawa), Italy (Milan), Germany (Munich), France (Paris), Uruguay, USA (New York), Czech Republic, Italy (Rome), Sweden, USA (Washington), Chile, Netherlands, Brazil, Canada (Toronto), Bulgaria and Poland.
136. In the sequence listed by the DFA: United Arab Emirates, China (Beijing), Indonesia, Jordan, Australia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Thailand, Pakistan, Kuwait, India (Bombay), Malaysia, Japan, India (New Delhi), Taiwan, Saudi Arabia, Israel, South Korea and Iran.
137. According to a report in Business Day (13 January 1997, p 1) South Africa had 'accredited a nearby embassy to cover 44 countries'. It was not mentioned which embassy this is, but it is very likely a mission in an African country.
138. Business Day, 13 January 1997, p 1.
139. Business Day, 13 January 1997, p 1.
140. Business Day, 13 January 1997. p 1.
141. Business Day, 13 January 1997, p 1. According to this report South Africa had 75 embassies or high commissions in foreign countries, while there were 96 embassies or high commissions in South Africa, and South Africa has consulates in 18 countries, but 57 countries have consulates in South Africa.
142. For a listing of the Foreign Representatives in South Africa at this time, see: South African Yearbook 1997, pp 205 and 210-213; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 465-468; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997.
143. For a listing of the Foreign Representatives in South Africa at this time, see: South African Yearbook 1997, pp 205 and 210-213; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 465-468; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997.
144. For a listing of the Foreign Representatives in South Africa at this time, see: South African Yearbook 1997, pp 205 and 210-213; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 465-468; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997.
145. Business Day, 10 January 1997, p 1; 13 January 1997, p 7; Beeld, 13 January 1997, p 4.
146. Business Day, 10 January 1997, p 1; 13 January 1997, p 7; Beeld, 13 January 1997, p 4.
147. Business Day, 10 January 1997, p 1; 13 January 1997, p 7; Beeld, 13 January 1997, p 4.
148. Beeld, 11 November 1998, p 2.
149. Beeld, 12 November 1998, p 4.
150. Beeld, 12 November 1998, p 4: The Cape Times, 27 February 1998, p 6.
151. Beeld, 12 November 1998, p 4: The Cape Times, 27 February 1998, p 6.
152. Beeld, 12 November 1998, p 4; Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
153. Beeld, 12 November 1998, p 4; Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
154. Rapport, 30 November 1998, p 4; information faxed by the DFA, 27 August 1998, to author.
155. Rapport, 30 November 1998, p 4; information faxed by the DFA, 27 August 1998, to author.
156. Cape Argus, 11 December 1998, p 1. If the exchange rate impact was considered and inflation factored in, the cut was estimated to be as much as 20 per cent (The Cape Times, 27 February 1998, p 6).
157. Cape Argus, 11 December 1998, p 1. If the exchange rate impact was considered and inflation factored in, the cut was estimated to be as much as 20 per cent (The Cape Times, 27 February 1998, p 6).
158. Rapport, 16 November 1998, p 7.
159. Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998; November 1998.
160. Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998; November 1998.
161. Business Day, 12 May 1998, p 5; 8 May 1998, p 1.
162. Business Day, 12 May 1998, p 5; 8 May 1998, p 1.
163. Die Burger, 9 May 1998, p 10; Pretoria News, 12 May 1998, p 3.
164. Die Burger, 9 May 1998, p 10; Pretoria News, 12 May 1998, p 3.
165. Die Burger, 18 June 1998, p 9; Die Beeld, 18 June 1998, p 6.
166. Die Burger, 18 June 1998, p 9; Die Beeld, 18 June 1998, p 6.
167. Rapport, 4 October 1998, p 2.
168. It is interesting to note the increased use of this 'cheap' form of 'diplomatic' representation.
169. It is a little unexpected that non-residential accreditations should have gone down in number. Press reports gave the impression that this was not the case.
170. This increase is also an interesting and noteworthy development.
171. Greg Mills, 'South Africa and Asia: new opportunities, lessons and dilemmas', in Carlsnaes and Muller, Change and South African External Relations, p 192; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997, p 23; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 465.
172. Greg Mills, 'South Africa and Asia: new opportunities, lessons and dilemmas', in Carlsnaes and Muller, Change and South African External Relations, p 192; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997, p 23; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 465.
173. Greg Mills, 'South Africa and Asia: new opportunities, lessons and dilemmas', in Carlsnaes and Muller, Change and South African External Relations, p 192; Mission Address and Telephone List, 27 January 1997, p 23; South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 465.
174. See, for example, Beeld, 24 October 1997, p 17. Media Statement of the DFA, 22 December 1997.
175. See, for example, Beeld, 24 October 1997, p 17. Media Statement of the DFA, 22 December 1997.
176. Die Burger, 4 July 1998, p 9.
177. See Denis Venter, 'South Africa and Africa: relations in a time of change', in Carlsnaes and Muller, Change and South African External Relations, pp 88-95, for a more detailed discussion of these affairs.
178. See The Citizen, 24 June 1997, p 14, where reference is made to a number of telephone conversations between President Mandela and British Prime Minister, Mr Tony Blair, and to a 'warm relationship' which has apparently developed between them as a result.
179. Henwood, 'South African foreign policy and international practise - 1997 - an analysis'.
180. Jovan Kurbalija, 'Information technology and diplomacy in a changing environment', Discussion Papers, Diplomatic Studies Programme, Centre for the Study of Diplomacy, Leicester, No 20, August 1996.
181. South African Foreign Policy: Discussion Document, http:www.polity.org.za/ govdocs/discuss/foreign (accessed: 10 September 1997). The research done by my research assistant, Marina Botes, during the first half of 1998, on South African use of IT in diplomacy is hereby gratefully acknowledged. She conducted personal interviews with a number of persons and acquired the discussion document from the Net. Unless otherwise indicated, the material included in this section was compiled by Marina Botes from interviews she conducted with the following: A. de W. Coetzee, Data technologist, Civil Service Commission; 10 March 1998. J. D. Cornet, Director: Telematics, Department of Foreign Affairs; 6 March 1998. R. Hopley, Deputy Director: Information Technology, Department of Foreign Affairs; 11 March 1998. D. Robinson, Assistant Director: Information Technology, Office of the President: 10 March 1998.
182. South African Foreign Policy: Discussion Document, 1997.
183. Section on Communications, in Thematic Review: Strategic Planning, Working document of the DFA, 1999.
184. The New Nation, 16 May 1997, p 2.
185. Muller, 'The Diplomacy of Reintegration: South Africa Back into the Fold'.
186. See: The Star, 7 August 1998, p 5; Business Day, 13 August 1998, p 2; 14 August 1998, p 5; Sowetan, 14 August 1998, p 5; Die Burger, 29 August 1998, p 11.
187. See: The Star, 7 August 1998, p 5; Business Day, 13 August 1998, p 2; 14 August 1998, p 5; Sowetan, 14 August 1998, p 5; Die Burger, 29 August 1998, p 11.
188. See: The Star, 7 August 1998, p 5; Business Day, 13 August 1998, p 2; 14 August 1998, p 5; Sowetan, 14 August 1998, p 5; Die Burger, 29 August 1998, p 11.
189. See: The Star, 7 August 1998, p 5; Business Day, 13 August 1998, p 2; 14 August 1998, p 5; Sowetan, 14 August 1998, p 5; Die Burger, 29 August 1998, p 11.
190. See: The Star, 7 August 1998, p 5; Business Day, 13 August 1998, p 2; 14 August 1998, p 5; Sowetan, 14 August 1998, p 5; Die Burger, 29 August 1998, p 11.
191. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
192. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
193. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
194. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
195. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
196. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
197. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
198. Criticism of the South African intervention in Lesotho was rampant and it was reported in the press that DFA officials had not been informed beforehand. The incident was then likened to the old days when the military 'made foreign policy'. See for example: Beeld, 24 September 1998, p 9; Die Burger, 24 September 1998, p 2; The Sunday Independent, 27 September 1998, p 10; Finansies & Tegniek, 2 October 1998, p 11; The Independent on Saturday, 3 October 1998, p 8; Die Beeld, 10 October 1998, p 8: The Citizen, 3 November 1998, p 2; The Citizen, 18 November 1998, p 6.
199. South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 468-469.
200. South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1998, pp 404-405.
201. Background Briefing on Mandela's State Visits, issued by the Office of the President, 25 February 1997.
202. Die Burger, 24 April 1998.
203. The Star, 26 November 1998, p 2.
204. Statement by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs to Parliament on South Africa's Hosting of the XIIth Summit of the Non-Aligned Countries, 10 June 1998, http://www.nam.gov.za/nam.html.
205. It may be best to confine the use of the concept 'summitry' to executive heads of state. However, nominal heads of state can sometimes play a valuable rôle in diplomacy; in particular in a symbolic sense.
206. South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, pp 470-471.
207. South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p471.
208. The Citizen, 25 July 1997, p 15. According to a US Embassy official involved in the Binational Commission, the USA has similar arrangements with only two other states, Russia and Egypt, but may be setting up another with the Ukraine. Very little is apparently known about the Commission in the US State Department, as an electronic enquiry met with complete ignorance on the topic. The more recently established SA/German Binational Commission has apparently followed the example of the SA/US Commission, which would seem to indicate that the latter must be regarded as a worthwhile exercise. The SA/US Commission originally dealt with four subject areas, but this has since been extended to six: environment, energy, science and technology, business development, human resources and agriculture. Six sub-committees see to continuity in dealing with these matters. Mbeki and Gore meet at least once a year, but normally twice. A binational commission with India has also been in use since 1996 and its third meeting took place in December 1998 (The Citizen, 4 December 1998, p 11) and it was reported in the press that a binational commission with Greece could also be on the cards (Beeld, 19 November 1998, p 9).
209. The Citizen, 25 July 1997, p 15. According to a US Embassy official involved in the Binational Commission, the USA has similar arrangements with only two other states, Russia and Egypt, but may be setting up another with the Ukraine. Very little is apparently known about the Commission in the US State Department, as an electronic enquiry met with complete ignorance on the topic. The more recently established SA/German Binational Commission has apparently followed the example of the SA/US Commission, which would seem to indicate that the latter must be regarded as a worthwhile exercise. The SA/US Commission originally dealt with four subject areas, but this has since been extended to six: environment, energy, science and technology, business development, human resources and agriculture. Six sub-committees see to continuity in dealing with these matters. Mbeki and Gore meet at least once a year, but normally twice. A binational commission with India has also been in use since 1996 and its third meeting took place in December 1998 (The Citizen, 4 December 1998, p 11) and it was reported in the press that a binational commission with Greece could also be on the cards (Beeld, 19 November 1998, p 9).
210. The Citizen, 25 July 1997, p 15. According to a US Embassy official involved in the Binational Commission, the USA has similar arrangements with only two other states, Russia and Egypt, but may be setting up another with the Ukraine. Very little is apparently known about the Commission in the US State Department, as an electronic enquiry met with complete ignorance on the topic. The more recently established SA/German Binational Commission has apparently followed the example of the SA/US Commission, which would seem to indicate that the latter must be regarded as a worthwhile exercise. The SA/US Commission originally dealt with four subject areas, but this has since been extended to six: environment, energy, science and technology, business development, human resources and agriculture. Six sub-committees see to continuity in dealing with these matters. Mbeki and Gore meet at least once a year, but normally twice. A binational commission with India has also been in use since 1996 and its third meeting took place in December 1998 (The Citizen, 4 December 1998, p 11) and it was reported in the press that a binational commission with Greece could also be on the cards (Beeld, 19 November 1998, p 9).
211. Media Statement by the DFA, 2 December 1997.
212. Rapport, 25 October 1998, p 18.
213. The Citizen, 12 October 1998, p 15; The Citizen, 19 October 1998, p 8.
214. The Citizen, 12 October 1998, p 15; The Citizen, 19 October 1998, p 8.
215. Beeld, 3 December 1998, p 4.
216. See for example: The Citizen, 7 October 1999, p 6; City Press, 8 November 1998, p 1; The Sunday Times, 15 November 1998, p 22; Die Burger, 19 November 1998, p 15; The Star, 10 December 1999, p 2.
217. See for example: The Citizen, 7 October 1999, p 6; City Press, 8 November 1998, p 1; The Sunday Times, 15 November 1998, p 22; Die Burger, 19 November 1998, p 15; The Star, 10 December 1999, p 2.
218. See for example: The Citizen, 7 October 1999, p 6; City Press, 8 November 1998, p 1; The Sunday Times, 15 November 1998, p 22; Die Burger, 19 November 1998, p 15; The Star, 10 December 1999, p 2.
219. See for example: The Citizen, 7 October 1999, p 6; City Press, 8 November 1998, p 1; The Sunday Times, 15 November 1998, p 22; Die Burger, 19 November 1998, p 15; The Star, 10 December 1999, p 2.
220. See for example: The Citizen, 7 October 1999, p 6; City Press, 8 November 1998, p 1; The Sunday Times, 15 November 1998, p 22; Die Burger, 19 November 1998, p 15; The Star, 10 December 1999, p 2.
221. For a useful listing of the international agreements, bilateral and multilateral, entered into by South Africa, see the regular feature on Treaties in the South African Yearbook of International Law, as well as a similar feature in the Foreign Relations section of South Africa Yearbook.
222. South Africa Yearbook 1997, pp 192-193.
223. South Africa Yearbook 1997, pp 203-204. Mills, 'South African Foreign Policy: the year in review', 1996, p 6; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the non-aligned movement', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 160.
224. South Africa Yearbook 1997, pp 203-204. Mills, 'South African Foreign Policy: the year in review', 1996, p 6; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the non-aligned movement', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 160.
225. South Africa Yearbook 1997, pp 203-204. Mills, 'South African Foreign Policy: the year in review', 1996, p 6; Greg Mills, 'South Africa and the non-aligned movement', in South African Yearbook of International Affairs 1997, p 160.
226. See Media Statement of the DFA, 3 March 1997. For a critical assessment of this new initiative, see Fred Ahwireng-Obeng, 'A sceptical view of South Africa within the IOR-ARC', The South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol 5, No 1, Summer 1997, pp 97-109.
227. See Media Statement of the DFA, 3 March 1997. For a critical assessment of this new initiative, see Fred Ahwireng-Obeng, 'A sceptical view of South Africa within the IOR-ARC', The South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol 5, No 1, Summer 1997, pp 97-109.
228. See for example: the DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996: the South African Yearbook of International Affairs; the Foreign Relations section in the South Africa Yearbook; and the regular feature on South African participation in international organizations in the South African Yearbook of International Law.
229. See for example: the DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996: the South African Yearbook of International Affairs; the Foreign Relations section in the South Africa Yearbook; and the regular feature on South African participation in international organizations in the South African Yearbook of International Law.
230. See for example: the DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996: the South African Yearbook of International Affairs; the Foreign Relations section in the South Africa Yearbook; and the regular feature on South African participation in international organizations in the South African Yearbook of International Law.
231. See for example: the DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996: the South African Yearbook of International Affairs; the Foreign Relations section in the South Africa Yearbook; and the regular feature on South African participation in international organizations in the South African Yearbook of International Law.
232. The Star, 10 December 1998, p 2.
233. DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1993 (MB1/96) and DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996 (MB1/97).
234. DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1993 (MB1/96) and DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996 (MB1/97).
235. Also see: Department of Foreign Affairs List, June 1998.
236. See DFA Multilateral Branch Annual Report 1996, p 6.
237. The Thematic Review: Strategic Planning document asserts that South Africa should assume a 'higher, more assertive and effective profile and engagement in international institutions' and that involvement in international organizations will be prioritized taking into account 'progressive proximity' and considerations of where the greatest benefit can be obtained given limited resources. Also see: Greg Mills, 'A Passion for Affairs', Leadership, November 1998, p 48.
238. See for example Richard Langhorne, 'Current developments in diplomacy: who are the diplomats now?', Diplomacy & Statecraft, Vol 8, No 2, July 1997, pp 1-15.
239. 'Old dogs and new tricks? South Africa, foreign policy, business and the African renaissance', address to the Pretoria Branch of the South African Institute of International Affairs, 3 December 1998.
240. See for example The Citizen, 9 February 1999, p 5, where Nzo stated that actions by the Mugabe government against journalists and others was 'a domestic matter' and that South Africa would not involve itself in it.