From oligarchy to oligarchy: The structure of Russia's ruling elite

Demokratizatsiya

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 325-340

  Graham, Thomas ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NATIONAL POLITICS; POLITICAL POWER; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

RUSSIAN FEDERATION;

EID: 0032703153     PISSN: 10746846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. On the oligarchic structure of tsarist Russia and the Soviet Union, see Edward Keenan, "Muscovite Political Folkways," Russian Review 45, no. 2 (April 1986):115-81.
2. See, for example. Financial Industrial Groups and Conglomerates in Russian Economy & Politics (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, July 1998), 11-13; Lilia Shevtsova, "Molodye reformatory i Partiya vlasti," Izvestiya, 9 September 1997; and Anders Aslund, "The Myth of Oligarchy," Moscow Times, 30 January 1998.
3. See, for example. Financial Industrial Groups and Conglomerates in Russian Economy & Politics (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, July 1998), 11-13; Lilia Shevtsova, "Molodye reformatory i Partiya vlasti," Izvestiya, 9 September 1997; and Anders Aslund, "The Myth of Oligarchy," Moscow Times, 30 January 1998.
4. See, for example. Financial Industrial Groups and Conglomerates in Russian Economy & Politics (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, July 1998), 11-13; Lilia Shevtsova, "Molodye reformatory i Partiya vlasti," Izvestiya, 9 September 1997; and Anders Aslund, "The Myth of Oligarchy," Moscow Times, 30 January 1998.
5. Plato defines an oligarchy as a regime "based on property qualification, where the rich are in power and the poor man cannot hold office." See The Republic of Plato (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 274-79, at 274. Aristotle writes, "Oligarchy might be defined as the constitution under which the rich, being also few in number, hold the offices of the state." See The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946), 113-16, at 115-16.
6. Plato defines an oligarchy as a regime "based on property qualification, where the rich are in power and the poor man cannot hold office." See The Republic of Plato (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1945), 274-79, at 274. Aristotle writes, "Oligarchy might be defined as the constitution under which the rich, being also few in number, hold the offices of the state." See The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946), 113-16, at 115-16.
7. See A. A. Neshchadin et al., Lobbizm v Rossii: etapy bol'shogo puti (Moscow: Experts Institute, The Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, January 1995), 10-11. For a more general discussion of the distribution of power in the Soviet Union, see Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1979), 518-55.
8. See A. A. Neshchadin et al., Lobbizm v Rossii: etapy bol'shogo puti (Moscow: Experts Institute, The Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, January 1995), 10-11. For a more general discussion of the distribution of power in the Soviet Union, see Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod, How the Soviet Union Is Governed (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1979), 518-55.
9. Neshchadin, Lobbizm, 11-13.
10. Mikhail Voslensky, Nomenklatura: Gospodstuyushchy klass Sovetskogo Soyuza (London: Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd., 1984), 149.
11. Mikhail Gorbachev, Zhizn' i reformy, vol. 1, (Moscow. Novosti, 1995), 6.
12. See Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford: Oxford University Press, paper-back edition, 1997), 166-211.
13. On the changing role of money in the late Soviet period, see International Monetary Fund, The World Bank, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, A Study of the Soviet Economy (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, February 1991), 359-77.
14. Alexei G. Arbatov, "Military Reform in Russia: Dilemmas, Obstacles, and Prospects," International Security 22, no. 4 (Spring 1998): 94-99.
15. See Yulia Ul'yanova, "Bankrotstvo budet," Segodnya, 13 January 1999.
16. See Yegor Gaydar, Gosudarstvo i evoloyutsiya (Moscow: Yevraziya, 1995), 143-53; and interview with Yegor Gaydar, "Vlast i sobstvennost': Razvod po-rossiyski, ili priznaniya 'starogo' reformatora," Izvestiya. 1 October 1997, 4.
17. See Yegor Gaydar, Gosudarstvo i evoloyutsiya (Moscow: Yevraziya, 1995), 143-53; and interview with Yegor Gaydar, "Vlast i sobstvennost': Razvod po-rossiyski, ili priznaniya 'starogo' reformatora," Izvestiya. 1 October 1997, 4.
18. See also Olga Kryshtanovskaya, "Financial Oligarchy in Russia," Izvestiya, 10 January 1996 [FBIS-SOV-96-018-S, 10 January 1996].
19. See Anders Aslund, "The Economic Causes of Crime in Russia," in The Rule of Law and Economic Reform in Russia, Jeffrey D. Sachs and Katharina Pistor, eds. (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997), 88-91.
20. On authorized banks, see Donald N. Jensen, "The Abuses of 'Authorized Banking,'" Russia's Financial Empires, January 1998 [http://rferl.org/ncs/special/rufinance/authorize.html]; Stephanie Baker, "Russia: Finance Ministry Is Establishing Treasury System" [http://rferl.org/nca/features/1998/01/F.RU.980119143637.html].
21. On authorized banks, see Donald N. Jensen, "The Abuses of 'Authorized Banking,'" Russia's Financial Empires, January 1998 [http://rferl.org/ncs/special/rufinance/authorize.html]; Stephanie Baker, "Russia: Finance Ministry Is Establishing Treasury System" [http://rferl.org/nca/features/1998/01/F.RU.980119143637.html].
22. See Leonid Sborov, "Even If the Government Pawns Its Property, It Will Not Be for Long," Kommersant 34 (10 September 1996): 42-45 [FBIS-SOV-96-191-S, Daily Report, 10 September 1996]; Boris Shilov, "Privatization's Dead Ends: Economic Iliteracy or Malicious Intent?" Delovoy mir, 3 February 1996 [FBIS-SOV-96-083-S, Daily Report, 3 February 1996); "J.P. Morgansky?" The Economist, 15 April 1995 [http://www.economist.com/archive]; "Who Will Buy Russia?" The Economist, 9 September 1995 [http:// www.economist.com/archive].
23. See Leonid Sborov, "Even If the Government Pawns Its Property, It Will Not Be for Long," Kommersant 34 (10 September 1996): 42-45 [FBIS-SOV-96-191-S, Daily Report, 10 September 1996]; Boris Shilov, "Privatization's Dead Ends: Economic Iliteracy or Malicious Intent?" Delovoy mir, 3 February 1996 [FBIS-SOV-96-083-S, Daily Report, 3 February 1996); "J.P. Morgansky?" The Economist, 15 April 1995 [http://www.economist.com/archive]; "Who Will Buy Russia?" The Economist, 9 September 1995 [http:// www.economist.com/archive].
24. See Leonid Sborov, "Even If the Government Pawns Its Property, It Will Not Be for Long," Kommersant 34 (10 September 1996): 42-45 [FBIS-SOV-96-191-S, Daily Report, 10 September 1996]; Boris Shilov, "Privatization's Dead Ends: Economic Iliteracy or Malicious Intent?" Delovoy mir, 3 February 1996 [FBIS-SOV-96-083-S, Daily Report, 3 February 1996); "J.P. Morgansky?" The Economist, 15 April 1995 [http://www.economist.com/archive]; "Who Will Buy Russia?" The Economist, 9 September 1995 [http:// www.economist.com/archive].
25. See Leonid Sborov, "Even If the Government Pawns Its Property, It Will Not Be for Long," Kommersant 34 (10 September 1996): 42-45 [FBIS-SOV-96-191-S, Daily Report, 10 September 1996]; Boris Shilov, "Privatization's Dead Ends: Economic Iliteracy or Malicious Intent?" Delovoy mir, 3 February 1996 [FBIS-SOV-96-083-S, Daily Report, 3 February 1996); "J.P. Morgansky?" The Economist, 15 April 1995 [http://www.economist.com/archive]; "Who Will Buy Russia?" The Economist, 9 September 1995 [http:// www.economist.com/archive].
26. See Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Russia: Privatization and Illegalizatino of Social and Political Life," Washington Quarterly 19, no. 1 (Winter 1996): 76-82.
27. For a fuller description of the structure and behavior of this oligarchic system, see Thomas Graham, "Novyy rossiysky rezhim," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 23 November 1995.
28. See Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Who Calls the Tune in Russia Today," Arguments i fakty 21 (May 1997): 4 [FBIS Serial: 97R26125A, 3 June 1997]; Janine R. Wedel, "Cliques and Clans and Aid to Russia" [http://www.omri.cz/transitions/cliques1.html].
29. See Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Who Calls the Tune in Russia Today," Arguments i fakty 21 (May 1997): 4 [FBIS Serial: 97R26125A, 3 June 1997]; Janine R. Wedel, "Cliques and Clans and Aid to Russia" [http://www.omri.cz/transitions/cliques1.html].
30. On Berezovsky, see interview with Berezovsky, Obshshaya gazeta 48, 3 December 1998. On Khodorkovsky, see interview with Khodorkovsky in Biznesmeny Rossii (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, 1994), 170-78. On Smolensky, see David Hoffman, "Russian Banker Reaches Pinnacle of Capitalism," Washington Post, 17 October 1997. On Potanin, see Rose Brady, Kapitalizm: Russia's Struggle to Free its Economy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 135-38.
31. On Berezovsky, see interview with Berezovsky, Obshshaya gazeta 48, 3 December 1998. On Khodorkovsky, see interview with Khodorkovsky in Biznesmeny Rossii (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, 1994), 170-78. On Smolensky, see David Hoffman, "Russian Banker Reaches Pinnacle of Capitalism," Washington Post, 17 October 1997. On Potanin, see Rose Brady, Kapitalizm: Russia's Struggle to Free its Economy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 135-38.
32. On Berezovsky, see interview with Berezovsky, Obshshaya gazeta 48, 3 December 1998. On Khodorkovsky, see interview with Khodorkovsky in Biznesmeny Rossii (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, 1994), 170-78. On Smolensky, see David Hoffman, "Russian Banker Reaches Pinnacle of Capitalism," Washington Post, 17 October 1997. On Potanin, see Rose Brady, Kapitalizm: Russia's Struggle to Free its Economy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 135-38.
33. On Berezovsky, see interview with Berezovsky, Obshshaya gazeta 48, 3 December 1998. On Khodorkovsky, see interview with Khodorkovsky in Biznesmeny Rossii (Moscow: Center for Political Technologies, 1994), 170-78. On Smolensky, see David Hoffman, "Russian Banker Reaches Pinnacle of Capitalism," Washington Post, 17 October 1997. On Potanin, see Rose Brady, Kapitalizm: Russia's Struggle to Free its Economy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 135-38.
34. Petr Aven, "Ekonomika torga," Kommersant-Daily, 27 January 1999 [http://www.mosinfo.ru:8080/news/kd/99/01/data/kd012702.html, p.5]. See also Sergey Peregudov, "Novy rossiysky korporativizm," NG-Politekonomya 8 (April 1998): 5.
35. Petr Aven, "Ekonomika torga," Kommersant-Daily, 27 January 1999 [http://www.mosinfo.ru:8080/news/kd/99/01/data/kd012702.html, p.5]. See also Sergey Peregudov, "Novy rossiysky korporativizm," NG-Politekonomya 8 (April 1998): 5.
36. See interview with Boris Berezovsky, Kommersant-Daily, 17 June 1997 [FBIS Serial: 97R16430A, 24 July 1997].
37. For details of the struggle between the two coalitions, see Lilia Shevtsova, Yeltsin's Russia: Myths and Reality (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, forthcoming), chaps. 7 & 8; Interview with Berezovsky, Kommersant-Daily, 17 June 1997 [FBIS Serial: 97R16430A, 24 July 1997]; Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris Yel'tsin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow: Interbuk, 1997), 318-29.
38. For details of the struggle between the two coalitions, see Lilia Shevtsova, Yeltsin's Russia: Myths and Reality (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, forthcoming), chaps. 7 & 8; Interview with Berezovsky, Kommersant-Daily, 17 June 1997 [FBIS Serial: 97R16430A, 24 July 1997]; Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris Yel'tsin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow: Interbuk, 1997), 318-29.
39. For details of the struggle between the two coalitions, see Lilia Shevtsova, Yeltsin's Russia: Myths and Reality (Washington, DC, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, forthcoming), chaps. 7 & 8; Interview with Berezovsky, Kommersant-Daily, 17 June 1997 [FBIS Serial: 97R16430A, 24 July 1997]; Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris Yel'tsin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow: Interbuk, 1997), 318-29.
40. See Petr Aven's description of the Russian reformers in "Ekonomika torga." Kommersant-Daily, 27 January 1999 [http://www.mosinfo.ru:8080/news/kd/99/01/data/kd012702.html].
41. See David Hoffman, "Russia's Clans Go to War," Washington Post, 26 October 1997.
42. See Floriana Fossato, "Russia: Yeltsin Becomes Mediator in Row Between Bankers and Officials" [http://www.rfefl.org/nca/features/1997/09/F.RU.970915144645.html].
43. See Chubays' comments on Berezovsky in his interview in Moskovsky komsomolets, 5 March 1998 [FBIS Serial: MC0603094198, 6 March 1998].
44. On the similarities between Chubays and Berezovsky, see Aleksey Venediktov, "Anatoly Borisovich Berezovsky - Boris Abramovich Chubays," Segodnya, 13 March 1998.
45. For assessment of Luzhkov, see Mikhail Kozyrev and Sergey Sklyarov, "Moskovsky stil'," Ekspert 40 (26 October 1998); Vasily Golubev, "Moskovsky mer v sisteme "Rossya'," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 7 October 1998; Anna Ostapchuk and Yevgeny Krasnikov, "Luzhkov atakuyet v tsentre polya," Moskovskye novosti 46 (23 November 1998); David Hoffman, "In Moscow, Business and Politics Mix," Washington Post, 19 December 1997.
46. For assessment of Luzhkov, see Mikhail Kozyrev and Sergey Sklyarov, "Moskovsky stil'," Ekspert 40 (26 October 1998); Vasily Golubev, "Moskovsky mer v sisteme "Rossya'," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 7 October 1998; Anna Ostapchuk and Yevgeny Krasnikov, "Luzhkov atakuyet v tsentre polya," Moskovskye novosti 46 (23 November 1998); David Hoffman, "In Moscow, Business and Politics Mix," Washington Post, 19 December 1997.
47. For assessment of Luzhkov, see Mikhail Kozyrev and Sergey Sklyarov, "Moskovsky stil'," Ekspert 40 (26 October 1998); Vasily Golubev, "Moskovsky mer v sisteme "Rossya'," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 7 October 1998; Anna Ostapchuk and Yevgeny Krasnikov, "Luzhkov atakuyet v tsentre polya," Moskovskye novosti 46 (23 November 1998); David Hoffman, "In Moscow, Business and Politics Mix," Washington Post, 19 December 1997.
48. For assessment of Luzhkov, see Mikhail Kozyrev and Sergey Sklyarov, "Moskovsky stil'," Ekspert 40 (26 October 1998); Vasily Golubev, "Moskovsky mer v sisteme "Rossya'," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 7 October 1998; Anna Ostapchuk and Yevgeny Krasnikov, "Luzhkov atakuyet v tsentre polya," Moskovskye novosti 46 (23 November 1998); David Hoffman, "In Moscow, Business and Politics Mix," Washington Post, 19 December 1997.
49. See Svetlana Ofitova, "Partya regionov pretenduyet na vlast'," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30 January 1999.
50. See interview with Aleksandr Shokhin, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 17 December 1998; A.N. Shokhin, "Protiv techenya: Novaya kontseptsya politicheskogo liderstva," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 19 January 1999.
51. See interview with Aleksandr Shokhin, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 17 December 1998; A.N. Shokhin, "Protiv techenya: Novaya kontseptsya politicheskogo liderstva," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 19 January 1999.
52. See Matt Bivens, "Skuratov's Case Is Politically Motivated," Moscow Times, 29 January 1999; Geoff Winestock and Leonid Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs: Who's Up, Who's Down," Moscow Times, 12 January 1999; RFE/RL Newsline, 25 January 1999.
53. See Matt Bivens, "Skuratov's Case Is Politically Motivated," Moscow Times, 29 January 1999; Geoff Winestock and Leonid Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs: Who's Up, Who's Down," Moscow Times, 12 January 1999; RFE/RL Newsline, 25 January 1999.
54. See Matt Bivens, "Skuratov's Case Is Politically Motivated," Moscow Times, 29 January 1999; Geoff Winestock and Leonid Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs: Who's Up, Who's Down," Moscow Times, 12 January 1999; RFE/RL Newsline, 25 January 1999.
55. On the fate of the parts of the Chubays/Berezovsky coalition, see Yevgeny Anisimov, "Vy eshche ne vigeli plachushchego oligarkha?" Komsomol'skaya pravda, 25 December 1998; Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Smert' oligarkhii," Arguments i fakty 46, 11 November 1998; Winestock and Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs."
56. On the fate of the parts of the Chubays/Berezovsky coalition, see Yevgeny Anisimov, "Vy eshche ne vigeli plachushchego oligarkha?" Komsomol'skaya pravda, 25 December 1998; Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Smert' oligarkhii," Arguments i fakty 46, 11 November 1998; Winestock and Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs."
57. On the fate of the parts of the Chubays/Berezovsky coalition, see Yevgeny Anisimov, "Vy eshche ne vigeli plachushchego oligarkha?" Komsomol'skaya pravda, 25 December 1998; Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Smert' oligarkhii," Arguments i fakty 46, 11 November 1998; Winestock and Bershidsky, "The Oligarchs."
58. See "Padeniye ob"emov telereklamy s avgusta po oktyabr' 1998 goda," Kommersant-Daily, 6 November 1998.
59. See Aleskandr Bekker, "ChubaysY New Election Headquarters," Moskovskye novosti 10 (15-22 March 1998): 2-3 [FBIS Serial MC1703141398, 18 March 1998].
60. See Tatyana Koshkareva and Rustam Narzikulov, "Sergey Generalov peredayct TEK Rossii v ruki pravykh radikalov," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 23 December 1998.
61. See interview with Chubays, Kommersant-Daily, 8 September 1998, and Chubays argument that he had not misled the IMF and World Bank in "An Open Letter to the Editor of the Los Angeles Times," Embassy of the Russian Federation Press Release #40, 24 September 1998.
62. See Mikhail Rostovsky and Inara Filatova, "Knit telesezona: 'Chernyye polosy'," Moskovsky komsomolets, 15 January 1999; interview with ORT General Director Igor' Shabdurasulov, Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999; Leonid Krutakov, "Zachem prosnulsya dedushka?" Moskovsky komsomolets, 8 December 1998.
63. See Mikhail Rostovsky and Inara Filatova, "Knit telesezona: 'Chernyye polosy'," Moskovsky komsomolets, 15 January 1999; interview with ORT General Director Igor' Shabdurasulov, Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999; Leonid Krutakov, "Zachem prosnulsya dedushka?" Moskovsky komsomolets, 8 December 1998.
64. See Mikhail Rostovsky and Inara Filatova, "Knit telesezona: 'Chernyye polosy'," Moskovsky komsomolets, 15 January 1999; interview with ORT General Director Igor' Shabdurasulov, Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999; Leonid Krutakov, "Zachem prosnulsya dedushka?" Moskovsky komsomolets, 8 December 1998.
65. See Leonid Zavarsky, "Boris Berezovsky teryayet kryl'ya," Kommersant-Daily, 4 February 1999.
66. See Aleksandr Khinshteyn, "Kolpak dlya prezidenta," Moskovsky komsomolets, 20 January 1999; Nikolay Vladimirov, "Sledov 'Atolla' v 'Sibnefti' ne obnaruzhili," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 3 February 1999; Leonid Berres and Oleg Stulov, "V 'Sibnefti' iskali kompromat na Berezovskogo," Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999.
67. See Aleksandr Khinshteyn, "Kolpak dlya prezidenta," Moskovsky komsomolets, 20 January 1999; Nikolay Vladimirov, "Sledov 'Atolla' v 'Sibnefti' ne obnaruzhili," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 3 February 1999; Leonid Berres and Oleg Stulov, "V 'Sibnefti' iskali kompromat na Berezovskogo," Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999.
68. See Aleksandr Khinshteyn, "Kolpak dlya prezidenta," Moskovsky komsomolets, 20 January 1999; Nikolay Vladimirov, "Sledov 'Atolla' v 'Sibnefti' ne obnaruzhili," Nezavisimaya gazeta, 3 February 1999; Leonid Berres and Oleg Stulov, "V 'Sibnefti' iskali kompromat na Berezovskogo," Kommersant-Daily, 3 February 1999.
69. See Igor' Klochkov, "Mikhalkov budet dumat'," Kommersant-Daily, 26 January 1999.
70. See Il'ya Bulavinov, "Komu dostalos' 'Rosvooruzhenye'," Kommersant-Vlast', 8 December 1998 [http://www.mosinfo.ru:8080/news/kdv/98/12/data/kv120809.html].
71. See Ol'ga Kryshtanovskaya, "Smert' oligarkhii," Argumenty i fakty 47, 18 November 1998.
72. See Natal'ya Konstantinova, "Rasserdilsya li Prezident na Prem'yera?" Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30 January 1999. Berezovsky appears to be the key figure behind this anti-Primakov campaign. Removing Primakov is perhaps his last chance to reverse his fortunes by demonstrating that he retains sufficient access to Yeltsin to destroy his political opponents.