Flapping and flexible wings for biological and micro air vehicles

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

Volumn 35, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 455-505

  Shyy, Wei ^a   Berg, Mats ^a   Ljungqvist, Daniel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AERODYNAMIC LOADS; AIRCRAFT; AIRFOILS; ASPECT RATIO; BIOLOGY; DRAG; FLIGHT DYNAMICS; LIFT; MATHEMATICAL MODELS; REYNOLDS NUMBER;

FLAPPING WINGS; FLEXIBLE WINGS; MICRO AIR VEHICLES; WING LOADING; WING SPAN;

WINGS;

EID: 0032592965     PISSN: 03760421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0376-0421(98)00016-5     Document Type: Review

References (160)

1. [1] Dial KP. An Inside look at how birds fly: experimental studies of the internal and external processes controlling flight. 1994 Report to the Aerospace Profession, 38th Symp Proc, The Beverly Hilton, Beverly Hills, CA, 1994.
2. [2] Schmidt-Nielsen K. Locomotion: energy cost of swimming, flying, and running. Science 1972;177:222-8.
3. [3] Norberg UM. Vertebrate flight: mechanics, physiology, morphology, ecology and evolution. New York: Springer, 1990.
4. [4] Alexander RMc. The U, J and L of bird flight. Nature 1997;390:13.
5. [5] Goslow Jr GE, Dial KP, Jenkins Jr FA. Bird flight: insights and complications. J BioSci 1990;40:108-15.
6. [6] Shipman P. Taking wing. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998.
7. [7] Tobalske BW, Dial KP. Flight kinematics of black-billed magpies and pigeons over a wide range of speeds. J Exp Biol 1996;199:263-80.
8. [8] Aymar GC. Bird flight. Mead: Dodd, 1935.
9. [9] Storer JH. The flight of birds. Bloomfield Hills, MI: Cranbrook Press, 1948.
10. [10] Dhawan S. Bird flight. Sadhana - Acad Proc Eng Sci 1991;16:275-352.
11. [11] Davis WR, Kosicki BB, Boroson DM, Kostishack DF. Micro air vehicles for optical surveillance. The Lincoln Laboratory J 1996;9:197-214.
12. [12] Foch RJ. The first fly-off competition for mission-capable micro air vehicles. Unmanned Systems 1997:18-23.
13. [13] McMichael JM, Francis MS. Micro air vehicles - toward a new dimension in flight, unpublished DARPA document, 1997.
14. [14] Chandler JG. Micro planes. Popular Sci, January issue, cover and 1998;54-9.
15. [15] Kays J. Micro-planes. Explore (research magazine published by the University of Florida). 1998:10-5.
16. [16] Lissaman PBS. Low Reynolds number airfoils. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1983;15:223-39.
17. [17] Shyy W, Jenkins DA, Smith RW. Study of adaptive shape airfoils at low Reynolds number in oscillatory flow. AIAA J 1997;35:1545-8.
18. [18] Brodsky AK. The evolution of insect flight. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
19. [19] Maxworthy T. The fluid dynamics of insect flight. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1981;13:329-50.
20. [20] Tennekes H. The simple science of flight (from insects to jumbo jets), Boston, MA: MIT Press, 1996.
21. [21] Wu ThYT, Brokaw CJ, Brennen C, editors. Swimming and flying in nature, 2 vols. New York: Plenum, 1975.
22. [22] Pedley TJ, editor. Scale effects in animal locomotion. New York: Academic Press, 1977.
23. [23] Maddock L, Bone Q, Rayner JMV, editors. Mechanics and physiology of animal swimming. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
24. [24] Lighthill MJ. Hydrodynamics of aquatic animal propulsion. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1969;1:413-45.
25. [25] Lighthill MJ. Mathematical biofluiddynamics. Philadelphia, PA: Society for Industry and Applied Mathematics, 1975.
26. [26] Wu ThYT. Hydromechanics of swimming of fishes and cetaceans. In: Yih CS, editor. Advances in applied mechanics, vol. 11. New York: Academic Press, 1971:1-63.
27. [27] Childress S. Mechanics of swimming and flying. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
28. [28] Vogel S. Life's devices. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
29. [29] Alexander RMc. Optima for animals, revised ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
30. [30] Andersen JD Jr. Introduction to flight. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
31. [31] Shevell RS. Fundamentals of flight. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983.
32. [32] Lighthill MJ. Introduction to the scaling of aerial locomotion. In: Pedley TJ, editor. Scale effects in animal location. New York: Academic Press, 1977:365-404.
33. [33] Pennycuick CJ. Newton rules biology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
34. [34] Schmidt-Nielsen K. Scaling: why animal size so important? New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
35. [35] Shyy W, Smith R. A study of flexible airfoil aerodynamics with application to micro aerial vehicles. AIAA Paper No. 97-1933, 1997.
36. [36] Rayner JMV. Form and function in avian flight. In: Johnston RF, editor. Current ornithology, vol. 5. New York: Plenum Press, 1988;1-66.
37. [37] Rayner JMV. A new approach to animal flight mechanics. J Exp Biol 1979;80:17-54.
38. [38] Greenewalt CH. The flight of birds. Trans Am Philos Soc 1975;65:1-67.
39. [39] Greenewalt CH. Dimensional relationships for flying animals. Smithson Misc Collect 1962;144:1-46.
40. [40] Pennycuick CJ. Bird flight performance: a practical calculation manual. New York: Oxford Univ Press, 1989.
41. [41] Pennycuick CJ. Wingbeat frequency of birds in steady cruising flight: new data and improved predictions. J Exp Biol 1996;199:1613-8.
42. [42] Kirkpatrick SJ. Scale effects on the stresses and safety factors in the wing bones of birds and bats. J Exp Biol 1994;190:195-215.
43. [43] Pennycuick CJ. Mechanics of flight. In: Farner DS, King JR, editors. Avian biology. London: Academic Press, 1975;5:1-75.
44. [44] Hill AV. The dimensions of animal and their muscular dynamics. Sci Prog London 1950;38:209-30.
45. [45] Pennycuick CJ. Predicting wingbeat frequency and wavelength of birds. J Exp Biol 1990;150:171-85.
46. [46] Alexander RMc. Mechanics of bipedal locomotion. In: Spencer Davies P. editor. Perspectives in experimental biology. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1976:493-504.
47. [47] Alexander RMc. Optimum waking techniques for quadrupeds and bipeds. J Zool Lond 1980;192:97-117.
48. [48] Pennycuick CJ, Klaassen M, Kvist A, Lindstrom A. Wingbeat frequency and the body drag anomaly: wind-tunnel observations on a Thrush Nightingale (Luscinia Luscinia) and a Teal (Anas Crecca). J Exp Biol 1996;199:2757-65.
49. [49] Collins PQ, Graham JMR. Human flapping - wing flight under reduced gravity. Aeronaut J 1994;98:177-84.
50. [50] Pennycuick CJ. The mechanics of bird migration. Ibis 111 1969:525-56.
51. [51] Pennycuick CJ. Mechanical constraints on the evolution of flight. In: Padian K, editor. The origin of birds and the evolution of flight. San Francisco: Calif Acad Sci, 1986;8:83-98.
52. [52] Pennycuick CJ. Power requirements for horizontal flight in the pigeon. J Exp Biol 1968;49:527-55.
53. [53] Michelson RC, Reece S. Update on flapping wing micro air vehicle research. RPVs 13th Int Conf, Bristol, UK, 1998.
54. [54] DeLaurier JD. An aerodynamic model for flapping wing flight. Aeronautical J 1993:125-30.
55. [55] DeLaurier JD. The development of an efficient ornithopter wing. Aeronautical J 1993:153-62.
56. [56] DeLaurier JD, Harris JM. A study of mechanical flapping-wing flight. Aeronautical J 1993:277-86.
57. [57] Tucker VA. Bird metabolism during flight: evaluation of a theory. J Exp Biol 1973;58:689-709.
58. [58] Betteridge DS, Archer RD. A study of mechanics of flapping flight. Aeronaut J 1974;25:129.
59. [59] Archer RD, Sapupo J, Betteridge DS. Propulsion characteristics of flapping wings. Aeronaut J 1979;83:355-71.
60. [60] Rayner JMV. A vortex theory of animal flight. Part 1. The vortex wake of a hovering animal. J Fluid Mech 1979;91:697-730.
61. [61] Rayner JMV. A vortex theory of animal flight. Part 2. The forward flight of birds. J Fluid Mech 1979;91:731-63.
62. [62] Phlips PJ, East RA, Pratt NH. An unsteady lifting line theory of flapping wings with application to the forward flight of birds. J Fluid Mech 1981;112:97-125.
63. [63] Smith MJC. Simulating moth wing aerodynamics: Towards the development of flapping-wing technology. AIAA J 1996;34:1348-55.
64. [64] Tuncer IH, Platzer MF. Thrust generation due to airfoil flapping. AIAA J 1996;34:324-31.
65. [65] Knoller R. Die gesetze des luftwiderstandes. Flugund Motortechnik (Wein) 1909;3:1-7.
66. [66] Betz A. Ein beitrag zur erklaerung segelfluges. Z Flutgtechnik Motorluftschiffahrt 1912;3:269-72.
67. [67] Von Karman T, Burgers JM. Aerodynamic theory, vol. 2. Berlin: Springer, 1935:280-310.
68. [68] Garrick IE. Propulsion of a flapping and oscillating airfoil. NACA, Report 567, 1936.
69. [69] Schmidt W. Der wellpropeller, ein neuer antrieb fuer wasserland-, und luftahrzeuge. Z. Flugwiss 1965; 13:472-9.
70. [70] Bosch H. Interfering airfoils in two-dimensional unsteady, incompressible flow. AGARD-CP-227, 1978.
71. [71] Weis-Fogh T. Quick estimates of flight fitness in hovering animals, including novel mechanisms for lift production. J Exp Biol 1973;59:169-230.
72. [72] Bechert DW, Bruse M, Hage W, Meyer R. Biological surfaces and their technological application-laboratory and flight experiments on drag reduction and separation control. AIAA Paper No. 97-1960, 1997.
73. [73] Ellington CP. Morphological parameters, II. The aerodynamics of hovering insect flight. Philos Trans Roy Soc London B 1984;305:17-40.
74. [74] Carr LW, Chandrasekhar MS. Compressibility effect on dynamic stall. Prog Aerospace Sci 1996;32:523-73.
75. [75] Ekaterinaris JA, Platzer MF. Computational prediction of airfoil dynamic stall. Prog Aerospace Sci 1997; 33:759-846.
76. [76] Weis-Fogh T. Energetics of hovering flight in humming-birds and in Drosophila. J Exp Biol 1972;56:79-104.
77. [77] Jones RT. Wing theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
78. [78] Speeding GR. The wake of a kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in flapping flight. J Exp Biol 1987;127:59-78.
79. [79] Spedding GR. The wake of a kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) in gliding flight. J Exp Biol 1987;127: 45-57.
80. [80] Vest MS, Katz J. Unsteady aerodynamics model of flapping wings. AIAA-J 1996;34:1435-40.
81. [81] Archibald FS. Unsteady Kutta condition at high values of the reduced frequency parameter. J Aircraft 1975; 12:545-50.
82. [82] Satyanarayana B, Davis S. Experimental studies of unsteady trailing-edge conditions. AIAA J 1978;16:125-9.
83. [83] Poling DR, Telionis DP. The response of airfoils to periodic disturbances - the unsteady Kutta condition. AIAA J 1986;24:193-9.
84. [84] Giesing JP. Nonlinear two-dimensional unsteady potential flow with lift. J Aircraft 1968;5:135-43.
85. [85] Giesing JP. Vorticity and Kutta condition for unsteady multienergy flows. J Appl Mech Ser E 1969;91:608-13.
86. [86] Fejtek I, Nehara J. Experimental study of flapping wing lift and propulsion. Aeronautical J 1980;84:28-33.
87. [87] Norberg UM. Aerodynamics, kinematics, and energetics of horizontal flapping flight in the long-eared bat Plecotus auritus. J Exp Biol 1976;65:179-212.
88. [88] Alexander RMc. Flight. In: Alexander R, Goldspink G, editors. Mechanics and energetics of animal locomotion. London: Chapman & Hall, 1977:249-78.
89. [89] Pennycuick CJ, Obrecht III HH, Fuller MR. Empirical estimates of body drag of large waterfowl and raptors. J Exp Biol 1988;135:253-64.
90. [90] Van den Berg C, Rayner JMV. The moment of inertia of bird wings and the inertial power requirement for flapping flight. J Exp Biol 1995;198:1655-64.
91. [91] Ellington CP. Lift and power requirements, VI. The aerodynamics of hovering insect flight. Philos Trans Roy Soc London B 1984;305:144-81.
92. [92] Dial KP, Biewener AA, Tolbaske BW, Warrick DR. Mechanical power output of bird flight. Nature 1997;390(6655):67-70.
93. [93] Rayner JMV, Gordon R. Visualization and modeling of the wakes of flying birds. Int Congress on Locomotion Systems, Jena, 1997.
94. [94] Carmichael BH. Low Reynolds number airfoil survey. NASA CR 1165803, 1981.
95. [95] Crabtree LF. Effect of leading edge separation on thin wings in two-dimensional Incompressible flow. J Aeronaut Sci 1957;24:597-604.
96. [96] Ward JR. The behavior and effects of laminar separation bubbles on airfoils in incompressible flow. J Roy Aeronaut Soc 1963;67:783-90.
97. [97] Arena AV, Mueller TJ. Laminar separation, transition and turbulent reattachment near the leading edge of Airfoils. AIAA J 1980;18:747-53.
98. [98] Roberts WB. Calculation of laminar separation bubbles and their effect on airfoil performance. AIAA J 1980;18:25-31.
99. [99] Batill SM, Mueller TJ. Visualization of transition in the flow over an airfoil using the smoke-wire technique. AIAA J 1981;19:340-5.
100. [100] Mueller TJ, Fohlen LJ. Boundary layer characteristics of the Miley airfoil at low Reynolds numbers. J Aircraft 1984;21:658-64.
101. [101] Marchman JF. Aerodynamic turbulence at low Reynolds numbers. J Aircraft 1987;24:107-14.
102. [102] O'Meara MM, Mueller TJ. Laminar separation bubble characteristics on an airfoil at low Reynolds numbers. AIAA J 1987;27:1033-41.
103. [103] Hsiao FB, Liu CF, Tang Z. Aerodynamic performance and flow structure studies of a low Reynolds number airfoil. AIAA J 1989;27:129-37.
104. [104] Huang RF, Shy WW, Lin SW, Hsiao FB. Influence of surface flow on aerodynamic loads of a cantilever wing. AIAA J 1996;27:527-32.
105. [105] Gad-el-Hak M. Control of low-speed airfoil aerodynamics. AIAA J 1990;28:1537-52.
106. [106] Hillier R, Cherry NJ. The effects of stream turbulence on separation bubbles. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 1981;8:375-86.
107. [107] Kiya M, Sasaki K. Free-stream turbulence effects on a separation bubble. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 1983; 14:49-58.
108. [108] Mueller TJ, Pohlen LJ, Conigliaro PE, Jansen BJJr. The influence of free-stream disturbances on low Reynolds number airfoil experiments. Exp Fluids 1983; 1:3-14.
109. [109] Liu HT. Unsteady aerodynamics of a Wortmann wing at low Reynolds numbers. J Aircraft 1992;29:532-9.
110. [110] Drela M. XFOIL: an analysis and design system for low Reynolds number airfoils. In: Mueller TJ, Editor. Low Reynolds numbers aerodynamics, Lecture Notes in Engineering, vol. 54. New York: Springer, 1989:1-12.
111. [111] Coiro DP, deNicola C. Prediction of aerodynamic performance of airfoils in low Reynolds number flows. In: Mueller TJ, Editor. Low Reynolds numbers aerodynamics, Lecture Notes in Engineering, vol. 54. New York: Springer, 1989:257-63.
112. [112] Bertelrud A. A fast method of computation of airfoil characteristics. In: Mueller TJ, Editor. Low Reynolds numbers aerodynamics, Lecture Notes in Engineering, vol. 54. New York: Springer, 1989:24-38.
113. [113] Selig MS, Donovan JF, Fraser DB. Airfoils at low speeds. Virginia Beach, VA: Soartech, 1989.
114. [114] Selig MS, Maughmer MD. Multipoint inverse airfoil design method based on conformai mapping. AIAA J 1992;30:1162-70.
115. [115] Brendel M, Mueller TJ. Boundary layer measurements on airfoil at a low Reynolds number in an oscillating freestream. AIAA J 1988;26:257-63.
116. [116] Donovan JF, Selig MS. Low Reynolds number airfoil design and wind tunnel testing at Princeton University. In: Mueller TJ, Editor. Low Reynolds numbers aerodynamics, Lecture Notes in Engineering, vol. 54. New York: Springer, 1989:39-57.
117. [117] Ho C-M, Tai Y-C. Micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) and fluid flows. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1998; 30:579-612.
118. [118] Foch RJ, Ailinger KG. Low Reynolds number, long endurance aircraft design. AIAA Paper No. 92-1263, 1992.
119. [119] Shyy W, Kleverbring F, Nilsson M, Sloan J, Carroll B, Fuentes C. A study of rigid and flexible low Reynolds number airfoils. J Aircraft, 1999, accepted.
120. [120] Reed H, Saric WS, Arnal D. Linear stability theory applied to boundary. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1996; 28:389-428.
121. [121] Reed H, Saric WS. Stability of three-dimensional boundary layers. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1989;21:235-84.
122. [122] Reshotko E. Boundary layer instability, transition, and control. AIAA Paper No. 94-0001, 1994.
123. [123] Herbert Th. Secondary instability of boundary layers. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1988;20:487-526.
124. [124] Herbert Th. Parabolized stability equations. AGARD Rep. No. 793, 1994.
125. [125] Drela M, Giles MB. Viscous-inviscid analysis of transonic and low Reynolds number airfoils. AIAA J 1987;25:1347-55.
126. [126] Jenkins DA, Shyy W, Sloan J, Klevebring F, Nilsson M. Airfoil performance at low Reynolds numbers for micro air vehicle applications. 13th Bristol Int RPV/UAV Conf, 30 March-1 April, Bristo, UK, 1998.
127. [127] Prandtl L, Tietjens OG. Applied hydro-and aeromechanics. 1934. Reissued by Dover, New York, 1957.
128. [128] Abbott IH, Von Doenhoff AE. Theory of wing sections. New York: Dover, 1959.
129. [129] Gad-el-Hak M. The art and science of flow control. In: Gad-el-Hak M, editor. Frontiers in experimental fluid mechanics. Berlin: Springer, 1989:211-90.
130. [130] Bushnell DM, McGinley CB. Turbulence control in valve flows. Ann Rev Fluid Mech 1989;21:1-20.
131. [131] Hwang DP. A proof of concept experiment for reducing skin friction by using a micro-blowing technique. AIAA Paper No. 97-0546, 1997.
132. [132] Lin YL, Chyu MK, Shih TIP, Willis BP, Hwang DP. Skin-friction reduction through micro blowing. AIAA Paper No. 98-0359, 1998.
133. [133] Shyy W, He X, Thakur S. Jets and free stream interaction around a low Reynolds number airfoil leading edge. Numer Heat Transfer, 1999. accepted.
134. [134] Thakur S, Wright J, Shyy W. Convective film cooling over a representative turbine blade leading-edge. Int J Heat Mass Transfer, 1999, accepted.
135. [135] Shyy W. Computational modeling for fluid flow and interfacial transport. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994. revised impression, 1997.
136. [136] Shyy W, Thakur S, Ouyang H, Liu J, Blosch E. Computational techniques for complex transport phenomena. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
137. [137] Shyy W, Udaykumar HS, Rao MM, Smith RW. Computational fluid dynamics with moving boundaries. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis, 1996.
138. [138] Andersen JD Jr. A history of aerodynamics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
139. [139] Mueller TJ, editor. Low Reynolds numbers aerodynamics, Lecture Notes in Engineering, vol. 54, New York: Springer, 1989.
140. [140] Mueller TJ, Batill SM. Experimental studies of separation on a two-dimensional airfoil at low Reynolds number. AIAA J 1982;20:457-63.
141. [141] Mueller TJ. The influence of Laminar separation and transition on low Reynolds number airfoil hysterisis. J Aircraft 1985;22:763-70.
142. [142] Norberg UM, Rayner JMV. Ecological morphology and flight in bats (Mammalia; Chiroptera): wing adaptations, flight performance, foraging strategy and echolocation. Philos Trans Roy Soc London B 1987;316: 335-427.
143. [143] Rayner JMV. Linear relations in biomechanics: the statistics of scaling functions. J Zool 1985;206:415-39.
144. [144] Hall KC, Hall SR. Minimum induced power requirements for flapping flight. J Fluid Mech 1996;323:285-315.
145. [145] Hall KC, Pigott SA, Hall SR. Power requirements for large-amplitude flapping flight. J Aircraft 1998; 35:352-61.
146. [146] Send W. The mean power of forces and moments in unsteady aerodynamics. ZAMM 1992;113:113-32.
147. [147] Liu P, Bose N. Propulsive performance from oscillating propulsors with spanwise flexibility. Proc Royal Soc Lond A 1997;453:1763-70.
148. [148] Azuma A. The Biokinetics of Flying and Swimming. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo, Japan, 1992.
149. [149] McMasters JH. The origins of flight. AIAA Paper No. 99-0115, 1999.
150. [150] Vest MS, Katz J. Aerodynamic study of a flapping-wing micro-UAV. AIAA Paper No. 99-0994, 1999.
151. [151] Jones KD, Platzer MF. Numerical computation of flapping-wing propulsion and power extraction. AIAA Paper No. 97-0826, 1997.
152. [152] Jones KD, Platzer MF. An experimental and numerical investigation of flapping-wing propulsion. AIAA Paper No. 99-0995, 1999.
153. [153] Jones KD, Dohring CM, Platzer MF. Experimental and computational investigation of the Knoller-Betz effect. AIAA J 1998;36:1240-6.
154. [154] Tuncer IH, Platzer MF. A computational study of flow separation characteristics and wake profiles behind a flapping airfoil. AIAA Paper No. 99-0648, 1999.
155. [155] Platzer MF, Lai JCS, Dohring CM. Flow separation control by means of flapping foils. Proceedings of International Symposium on Seawater Drag Reduction, 22-23 July 1998, Newport, RI, pp. 471-78.
156. [156] Platzer MF, Neace KS, Pang C-K. Aerodynamic analysis of flapping wing propulsion. AIAA Paper No. 93-0348, 1993.
157. [157] Zeng L, Liu H, Kawachi K. Measurement and flow visualization of beating bumblebee wing. J Flow Visualiz & Image Process 1996;3:319-27.
158. [158] Liu H, Ellington CP, Kawachi K, van den Berg C, Willmott AP. A computational fluid dynamic study of hawkmoth hovering. J Exp Bio 1998;201:416-77.
159. [159] Thollesson M, Norberg UM. Moments of inertia of bat wings and body. J Exp Bio 1991;158:19-35.
160. [160] Norberg UM, Kunz TH, Steffensen JF, Winter Y, von Helversen O. The cost of hovering and forward flight in a nectar-feeding bat, Glossophaga soricina, estimated from aerodynamic theory. J Exp Bio 1993;182:207-27.