The platypus is not a rodent: DNA hybridization, amniote phylogeny and the palimpsest theory

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 353, Issue 1372, 1998, Pages 1221-1237

  Kirsch, John A W ^a   Mayer, Gregory C ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN PARKSIDE   (United States)

Author keywords

Chelonia; Crocodilia; Eutheria; Marsupialia; Marsupionta; Molecular evolution

Indexed keywords

ALLIGATOR; DNA HYBRIDIZATION; MONOTREMATE; PHYLOGENY; POPULATION GENETICS; RODENT; TURTLE;

EID: 0032578162     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.1998.0278     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Abbie, A. A. 1941 Marsupials and the evolution of mammals. Aust. J. Sci. 4, 77-92.
2. Archer, M., Flannery, T. F., Richie, A. & Molnar, R. E. 1985 First Mesozoic mammal from Australia - an early Cretaceous monotremc. Nature 318, 363-366.
3. Archer, M., Murray, P., Hand, S. & Godthelp, H. 1993 Reconsideration of monotreme relationships based on the skull and dentition of the Miocene Obdurodon dicksoni. In Mammal phylogeny. Mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians, and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek, & M. C. McKenna), pp. 75-94. New York: Springer.
4. Arnason, U., Gullberg, A. & Janke, A. 1997 Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial DNA suggests a sister group relationship between Xenarthra (Edentata) and ferungulates. Molec. Biol. Evol. 14, 762-768.
5. Benton, M. J. 1985 Classification and phylogcny of the diapsid reptiles, Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 84, 97-164.
6. Benton, M. J. 1990 Phytogeny of the major tetrapod groups: morphological data and divergence dates. J. Molec. Evol. 30, 409-424.
7. Benton, M. J. 1991 Amniote phylogeny. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb), pp. 317-330. Cornell University Press.
8. Birnbaum, A. 1962 On the foundations of statistical inference. J. Am. Statist. Assoc. 57, 269-306.
9. Bishop, M. J. & Friday, A. E. 1987 Tetrapod relationships: the molecular evidence. In Molecules and morphology in evolution: conflict or compromise? (ed. C. Patterson), pp. 123-139. Cambridge University Press.
10. Bishop, M. J. & Friday, A. E. 1988 Estimating the interrelationships of tetrapod groups on the basis of molecular sequence data. In The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians, reptiles, birds (ed. M. J. Benton), pp. 33-58. Oxford University Press.
11. Blackburn, D. G., Vitt, L. J. & Beuchat, C. A. 1984 Eutherian-like reproductive specializations in a viviparous reptile. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 4860-4863.
12. Bleiweiss, R. E. & Kirsch, J. A. W. 1993 Experimental analysis of variance for DNA hybridization. II. Precision, J. Molec. Evol. 37, 514-524.
13. Bleiweiss, R., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Matheus, J. C. 1994 DNA-DNA hybridization evidence for subfamily structure among hummingbirds. Auk 111, 8-19.
14. Bleiweiss, R., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Shafi, N. 1995 Confirmation of a portion of the Sibley-Ahlquist 'tapestry'. Auk 112, 87-97.
15. Broom, R. 1914 On the structure and affinities of the Multitubcrculata. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 33, 115-134.
16. Broom, R. 1924 On the classification of the reptiles. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 51, 39-65.
17. Camp, C. L. 1923 Classification of the lizards. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 48, 289-481.
18. Carroll, R. L. 1988 Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. New York: W. H. Freeman.
19. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. & Edwards, A. W. F. 1967 Phylogenetic analysis: models and estimation procedures. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 19, 233-257.
20. Chiappe, L. M. 1995 The first 85 million years of avian evolution. Nature 378, 349-355.
21. Cifelli, R. L., Rowe.T. B., Luckett, W. P., Banta, J., Reuben, R. & Howes, R. I. 1996 Fossil evidence for the origin of the marsupial pattern of tooth replacement. Nature 379, 715-718.
22. Clark, C. T. & Smith, K. K. 1993 Cranial osteogenesis in Monodelphis domestica (Didelphidae) and Macropus eugenii (Macropodidae). J. Morph. 215, 119-149.
23. Colbert, E. H. & Mook, C. C. 1951 The ancestral crocodilian Protosuchus. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 97, 143-182.
24. Cope, E. D. 1878 The theromorphous Reptilia. Am. Nat. 12, 829-830.
25. Cope, E. D. 1888 The Multituberculata monotremes. Am. Nat. 22, 259.
26. Crompton, A. W. & Jenkins, F. A. 1973 Mammals from reptiles: a review of mammalian origins. A. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. l, 131-155.
27. Crompton, A. W. & Jenkins, F. A. 1979 Origin of mammals. In Mesozoic mammals: the first two-thirds of mammalian history (ed. J. A. Lillegraven, Z. Kielan-Jaworowska & W. A. Clemens), pp. 59-73. Berkeley: University of California Press.
28. D'Erchia, A. M., Gissi, G., Pesole, G., Saccone, C. & Arnason, U. 1996 The guinea-pig is not a rodent. Nature 381, 597-599.
29. Eernisse, D. J. & Kluge, A. G. 1993 Taxonomic congruence versus total evidence, and amniotc phylogeny inferred from fossils, molecules, and morphology. Molec. Biol. Evol. 10, 1170-1195.
30. Estes, R. 1983 The fossil record and early distribution of lizards. In Advances in herpetology and evolutionary biology (ed. A. G. J. Rhodin & K. Miyata), pp. 365-398. Cambridge: Museum of Comparative Zoology.
31. Estes, R. 1988 Charles L. Camp: an appreciation. In Phylogenetic relationships of the lizard families (ed. R. Estes & G. Pregill), pp. 9-14. Stanford University Press.
32. Feduccia, A. 1996 The origin and evolution of birds. Yale University Press.
33. Felsenstein, J. 1978 Cases in which parsimony or compatibility methods will be positively misleading. Syst. Zool. 27, 401-410.
34. Felsenstein, J. 1993 PHYLIP, phylogenetic inference package. Version 3.5c. Seattle: University of Washington.
35. Flannery, T. F., Archer, M., Rich, T. H. & Jones, R. 1995 A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia. Nature 377, 418-420.
36. Gaffney, E. S. 1980 Phylogenetic relationships of the major groups of amniotes. In The terrestrial environment and the origin of land vertebrates (ed. A. L. Panchen), pp. 593-610. London: Academic Press.
37. Gaffney, E. S. & Meylan, P. 1988 A phylogeny of turtles. In The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians, reptiles, birds (ed. M. J. Benton), pp. 157-217. Oxford University Press.
38. Gardiner, B. G. 1982 Tetrapod classification. J. Linn. Soc. Zool. 74, 207-232.
39. Gardiner, B. G. 1993 Haematothermia: warm-blooded amniotes. Cladistics 9, 369-395.
40. Gauthier, J., Kluge, A. G. & Rowe, T. 1988a Amniote phylogeny and the importance of fossils. Cladistics 4, 105-209.
41. Gauthier, J., Kluge, A. G. & Rowe, T. 1988b The early evolution of the Amniota. In The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods. 1. Amphibians, reptiles, birds (ed. M. J. Benton), pp. 103-155. Oxford University Press.
42. Gemmell, N. J. & Westerman, M. 1994 Phylogenetic relationships within the class Mammalia: a study using mitochondrial 12S RNA sequences. J. Mammal. Evol. 2, 3-23.
43. Goodman, M., Miyamoto, M. M. & Czelusniak, J. 1987 Pattern and process in vertebrate phylogeny revealed by coevolution of molecules and morphologies. In Molecules and morphology in evolution: conflict or compromise? (ed. C. Patterson), pp. 141-176. Cambridge University Press.
44. Goodrich, E. S. 1916 On the classification of the Reptilia. Proc. R. Soc.Lond. B 89, 261-276.
45. Graur, D., Hide, W. A. & Li, W.-H. 1991 Is the guinea-pig a rodent? Nature 351, 649-652.
46. Green, H. L. H. H. 1937 The development and morphology of the teeth of Ornithorhynchus. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 228, 367-420.
47. Gregory, W. K. 1910 The orders of mammals. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 27, 1-524.
48. Gregory, W. K. 1922 On the 'habitus' and 'heritage' of Caenolestes. J. Mamm. 3, 106-114.
49. Gregory, W. K. 1934 A half century of trituberculy. The Cope-Osborn theory of dental evolution, with a revised summary of molar evolution from fish to man. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 73, 169-317.
50. Gregory, W. K. 1947 The monotremes and the palimpsest theory. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 88, 1-52.
51. Gregory, W. K. 1951 Evolution emerging: a survey of changing patterns from primeval life to man. New York: Macmillan.
52. Griffiths, M. 1978 The biology of monotremes. New York: Academic Press.
53. Hedges, B. 1994 Molecular evidence for the origin of birds. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 2621-2624.
54. Hedges, B., Moberg, K. D. & Maxson, L. R. 1990 Tetrapod phylogeny inferred from 18S and 28S ribosomal RNA sequences and a review of the evidence for amniote relationships. Molec. Biol. Evol. 7, 607-633.
55. Heilmann, G. 1926 The origin of birds. London : Witherby.
56. Hillis, D. M., Mable, B. K. & Moritz, C. 1996 Applications of molecular systematics: the state of the field and a look to the future. In Molecular systematics, 2nd edn (ed. D. M. Hillis, C. Moritz & B. K. Mable), pp. 515-543. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
57. Holmes, E. B. 1975 A reconsideration of the phylogeny of the tetrapod heart. J. Morph. 147, 209-228.
58. Hopson, J. A. 1991 Systematics of the nonmammalian Synapsida and implications for patterns of evolution in synapsids. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb), pp. 635-693. Cornell University Press.
59. Hopson, J. A. & Barghusen, H. R. 1986 An analysis of therapsid relationships. In The ecology and biology of mammal-like reptiles (ed. N. Hotton, P. D. MacLean, J. J. Roth & E. C. Roth), pp. 83-106. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
60. Hu, Y., Wang, Y, Luo, Z. & Li, C. 1997 A new symmetrodont mammal from China and its implications for mammalian evolution. Nature 390, 137-142.
61. Hume, I. D. 1982 Digestive physiology and nutrition of marsupials. Cambridge University Press.
62. Hutcheon, J., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Pettigrew, J. D. 1998 Base-compositional biases and the bat problem. III. The question of microchiropteran monophyly. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 353, 607-617.
63. Huxley, T. H. 1868 On the animals which are most nearly intermediate between birds and reptiles. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (4th series) 2, 66-75.
64. Huxley, T. H. 1870 Further evidence of the affinity between the dinosaurian reptiles and birds. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond. 26, 12-31.
65. Huxley, T. H. 1880 On the application of the laws of evolution to the arrangement of the Vertebrata, and more particularly of the Mammalia. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1880, 649-662.
66. Jamieson, B. G. M. & Healy, J. M. 1992 The phylogenetic position of the tuatara, Sphenodon (Sphenodontida, Amniota), as indicated by cladistic analysis of the ultrastructure of spermatozoa. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 335, 207-219.
67. Janke, A. & Arnason, U. 1997 The complete mitochondrial genome of Alligator mississippiensis and the separation between Recent Archosauria (birds and crocodiles). Molec. Biol. Evol. 14, 1266-1272.
68. Janke, A., Gemmell, N. J., Feldmaier-Fuchs, G., von Haeseler, A. & Pääbo, S. 1996 The mitochondrial genome of a monotreme - the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus). J. Molec. Evol. 42, 153-159.
69. Janke, A., Xu, X. & Arnason, U. 1997 The complete mitochondrial genome of the wallaroo (Macropus robustus) and the phylogenetic relationship among Monotremata, Marsupialia and Eutheria. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 94, 1276-1281.
70. Jenkins, F. A., Gatesy, S. M., Shubin, N. H. & Amaral, W. W. 1997 Haramiyids and Triassic mammalian evolution. Nature 385, 715-718.
71. Johnson, S. 1759 [The history of Rasselas:] The prince of Abissinia: a tale. London: R. & J. Dodsley and W. Johnston.
72. Kemp, T. S. 1982 Mammal-like reptiles and the origin of mammals. London: Academic Press.
73. Kemp, T. S. 1988a Interrelationships of the Synapsida. In The phylogeny and classification of the tetrapods. 2. Mammals (ed. M. J. Benton), pp. 1-22. Oxford University Press.
74. Kemp, T. S. 19884 Haemothermia or Archosauria? The interrelationships of mammals, birds, and crocodiles. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 92, 67-104.
75. Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. 1971 Results of the Polish-Mongolian palaeontological expeditions. III. Skull structure and affinities of the Multituberculata. Palaeont. Pol. 25, 5-41.
76. Kirsch, J. A. W. & Archer, M. 1982 Polythetic cladistics, or, when parsimony's not enough: the relationships of carnivorous marsupials. In Carnivorous marsupials (ed. M. Archer), pp. 595-619. Mosman, NSW: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
77. Kirsch, J. A. W. & Pettigrew, J. D. 1998 Base-compositional biases and the bat problem. II. DNA-hybridization trees based on AT- or GC-enriched tracers. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 353, 381-388.
78. Kirsch, J. A. W, Springer, M. S., Krajewski, C., Archer, M., Aplin, K. & Dickerman, A. W. 1990 DNA/DNA hybridization studies of carnivorous marsupials. I. The intergeneric relationships of bandicoots (Marsupialia: Perameloidea). J. Molec. Evol. 30, 434-448.
79. Kirsch, J. A. W, Dickerman, A. W., Reig, O. A. & Springer, M. S. 1991 DNA hybridization evidence for the Australasian affinity of the American marsupial Dromiciops australis. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 88, 10465-10469.
80. Kirsch, J. A. W., Dickerman, A. W. & Reig, O. A. 1995 DNA/DNA hybridization studies of carnivorous marsupials. IV. Intergeneric relations among opossums (Marsupialia: Didelphidae). Marmosiana 1, 57-78.
81. Kirsch, J. A. W., Lapointe, F.-J. & Springer, M. S. 1997 DNA-hybridisation studies of marsupials and their implications for metatherian classification. Aust. J. Zool. 45, 211-280.
82. Klima, M. 1987 Early development of the shoulder girdle and sternum in marsupials (Mammalia: Metatheria). Adv. Embryol. Cell Biol. 109, 1-91.
83. Krajewski, C. & Dickerman, A. W. 1990 Bootstrap analysis of phylogenetic trees derived from DNA hybridization distances. Syst. Zool. 39, 383-390.
84. Kühne, W. G. 1973 The systematic position of monotremes reconsidered (Mammalia). Z. Morph. Tiere 75, 59-64.
85. Kühne, W. G. 1977 On the Marsupionta, a reply to Dr. Parrington. J. Nat. Hist. 11, 225-228.
86. Kuhn-Schnyder, E. 1980 Observations on temporal openings of reptilian skulls and the classification of reptiles. In Aspects of vertebrate history (ed. L. L. Jacobs), pp. 153-175. Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona Press.
87. Kumazawa, Y. & Nishida, M. 1995 Variations in mitochondrial tRNA gene organization of reptiles as phylogenetic markers. Molec. Biol. Evol. 12, 759-772.
88. Landry, P.-A., Lapointe, F.-J. & Kirsch, J. A. W. 1996 Estimating phytogenies from lacunose distance matrices: additive is superior to ultrametric estimation. Molec. Biol. Evol. 13, 818-823.
89. Lapointe, F.-J., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Bleiweiss, R. 1994 Jackknifing of weighted trees: validation of phylogenics reconstructed from distance matrices. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol. 3, 256-267.
90. Laurin, M. & Reisz, R. R. 1995 A reevaluation of early amniote phylogeny. Zool. J. Linn. Soc. 113, 165-223.
91. Laurin, M. & Reisz, R. R. 1997 A new perspective on tetrapod phylogeny. In Amniote origins (ed. S. S. Sumida & K. L. M. Martin), pp. 9-59. San Diego: Academic Press.
92. Lee, M. S. Y. 1995 Historical burden in systematics and the interrelationships of 'parareptiles'. Biol. Rev. 70, 459-547.
93. Lee, M. S. Y. 1996 Correlated progression and the origin of turtles. Nature 379, 812-815.
94. Lee, M. S. Y. & Spencer, P. S. 1997 Crown clades, key characters and taxonomic stability: when is an amniote not an amniote? In Amniote origins (ed. S. S. Sumida & K. L. M. Martin), pp. 61-84. San Diego: Academic Press.
95. Lillegraven, J. A. 1975 Biological considerations of the marsupial-placental dichotomy. Evolution 29, 707-722.
96. Loomis, W. F. & Smith D. W. 1992 Molecular phylogeny of Dictyostelium discoideum by protein sequence comparison. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 9093-9097.
97. Lovtrup, S. 1985 On the classification of the taxon Tetrapoda. Syst. Zool. 34, 463-470.
98. Luckett, P. & Zeller, U. 1989 Developmental evidence for dental homologies in the monotreme Ornithorhynchus and its systematic applications. Z. Säugert. 54, 193-204.
99. Lull, R. S. 1917 Organic evolution. NewYork: Macmillan.
100. Luo, Z. 1994 Sister-group relationships of mammals and transformations of diagnostic mammalian characters. In In the shadow of the dinosaurs (ed. N. C. Fraser & H.-D. Sues), pp. 98-128. Cambridge University Press.
101. Maclntyre, G. T. 1967 Foramen pseudovale and quasi-mammals. Evolution 21, 834-841.
102. Maier, W. 1987 The ontogenetic development of the orbitotemporal region in the skull of Monodelphis domestica (Didelphidae, Marsupialia), and the problem of the mammalian alisphenoid. In Morphogenesis of the mammalian skull (ed. H.-J. Kuhn & U. Zeller), pp. 71-90. Hamburg: Paul Parey.
103. Maier, W. 1993 Cranial morphology of the therian common ancestor, as suggested by the adaptations of neonate marsupials. In Mammal phytogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 165-181. New York: Springer.
104. Mannen, H., Tsoi, S. C.-M., Krushkal, J. S., Li, W.-H. & Li, S. S.-L. 1997 The cDNA cloning and molecular evolution of reptile and pigeon lactate dehydrogenase isozymes. Molec. Biol. Evol. 14, 1081-1087.
105. Martin, L. D. 1991 Mesozoic birds and the origin of birds. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb), pp. 485-540. Cornell University Press.
106. Martin, T. 1997 Tooth replacement phenomena in late Jurassic Dryolestidae (Eupantotheria, Mammalia). J. Mammal. Evol. 4, 1-18.
107. McCrady, E. 1938 The embryology of the opossum. Am. Anat. Mem. 16, 1-233.
108. Messer, M., Weiss, A. S., Shaw, D. C. & Westerman, M. 1998 Evolution of the monotremes: phylogenetic relationship to marsupials and eutherians and estimation of divergence dates based on alpha-lactalbumin amino acid sequences. J. Mammal. Evol. (In the press.)
109. Miao, D. 1993 Cranial morphology and multituberculate relationship. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 63-74. New York: Springer.
110. Moody, S. 1985 Charles L. Camp and his 1923 classification of lizards: an early cladist? Syst. Zool. 34, 216-222.
111. Novacek, M. J. 1993 Patterns of diversity in the mammalian skull. In The skull. 2. Patterns of structural and systematic diversity (ed. J. Hanken & B. K. Hall), pp. 438-545. University of Chicago Press.
112. Novas, F. E. & Puerta, P. F. 1997 New evidence concerning avian origins from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia. Nature 387, 390-392.
113. Ostrom, J. H. 1976 Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 8, 91-182.
114. Ostrom, J. H. 1991 The question of the origin of birds. In Origins cf the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb), pp. 467-484. Cornell University Press.
115. Owen, R. 1866 On the anatomy of vertebrates. London: Longmans, Green.
116. Owen, R. 1876 Description and illustrated catalogue of the fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the collection of the British Museum. London: British Museum.
117. Page, R. D. M. 1996 TREEVIEW: an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers. Comp. Applic. Biosci. 12, 357-358.
118. Pascual, R., Archer, M., Ortiz Jaureguizar, E., Prado, J. L., Godthelp, H. & Hand, S. J. 1992 First discovery of monotremes in South America. Nature 356, 704-705.
119. Patton, J. L., dos Reis, S. F. & da Silva, M. N. F. 1996 Relationships among didelphid marsupials based on sequence variation in the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. J. Mammal. Evol. 3, 3-25.
120. Pettigrew J. D. 1994 Flying DNA. Curr. Biol. 4, 277-280.
121. Pettigrew, J. D. & Kirsch, J. A. W. 1998 Base-compositional biases and the bat problem. I. DNA-hybridization melting curves based on AT- or GC-enriched tracers. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 353, 369-379.
122. Philippe, H. & Douzery, E. 1994 The pitfalls of molecular phylogeny based on four species, as illustrated by the Cetacea/Artiodactyla relationships. J. Mammal. Evol. 2, 133-152.
123. Porter, C. A., Goodman, M. & Stanhope, M. J. 1996 Evidence on mammalian phylogeny from sequences of exon 28 of the von Willebrand factor gene. Molec. Phylogenet. Evol. 5, 89-101.
124. Raff, R. A. 1996 The shape of life: genes, development, and the evolution of animal form. University of Chicago Press.
125. Rage, J.-C. 1984 Serpentes. Handbuch der Paläoherpetologie, Teil 11. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer.
126. Reig, O. A. 1981 A refreshed orthodox viewof paleobiogeography of South American mammals. Evolution 35, 1032-1035.
127. Reig, O. A., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Marshall, L. G. 1987 Systematic relationships of the living and Neocenozoic American 'possum-like' marsupials (Suborder Didelphimorphia), with comments on the classification of these and of the Cretaceous and Palaeogene New World and European metatherians. In Possums and opossums: studies in evolution (ed. M. Archer), pp. 1-89. Chipping Norton, NSW: Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd.
128. Rieppel, O. & deBraga, M. 1996 Turtles as diapsid reptiles. Nature 384, 453-455.
129. Romer, A. S. 1956 Osteology of the reptiles. University of Chicago Press.
130. Romer, A. S. 1966 Vertebrate paleontology. University of Chicago Press.
131. Romer, A. S. 1968 Notes and comments on vertebrate paleontology. University of Chicago Press.
132. Rougier, G. W, Wible, J. R. & Novacek, M. J. 1996 Middle-ear ossicles of the multituberculate Kryptobaatar from the Mongolian Late Cretaceous: implications for mammaliamorph relationships and the evolution of the auditory apparatus. Am. Mus. Novitates 3187, 1-43.
133. Rowe, T. 1988 Definition, diagnosis and origin of Mammalia. J. Vert. Paleont. 8, 241-264.
134. Rowe, T. 1993 Phylogenetic systematics and the early history of mammals. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians, and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 129-145. New York: Springer.
135. Sabeur, G., Macaya, G., Kadi, F. & Bernardi, G. 1993 The isochore patterns of mammalian genomes and their phylogenetic implications. J. Molec. Evol. 37, 93-108.
136. Sarich, V. M. & Cronin, J. E. 1976 Molecular systematics of the primates. In Molecular anthropology, genes, and proteins in the evolutionary ascent of the primates (ed. M. Goodman & R. E. Tashian), pp. 141-170. New York: Plenum Press.
137. Selenka, E. 1887 Studien über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tiere. Band I. Viertes heft. Das opossum (Didelphys virginiana). Weisbaden: C. W. Kreidels.
138. Seutin, G., Lang, B. F., Mindell, D. P. & Morais, R. 1994 Evolution of the WANCY region in amniote mitochondrial DNA. Molec. Biol. Evol. 11, 329-340.
139. Sharman, G. B. 1970 Reproductive physiology of marsupials. Science 167, 1221-1228.
140. Sheldon, F. H. & Bledsoe, A. H. 1989 Indexes to the reassociation and stability of solution DNA hybrids. J. Molec. Evol. 29, 328-343.
141. Simmons, N. B. 1993 Phylogeny of Multituberculata. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians, and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 146-164. New York: Springer.
142. Smith, K. K. 1994 Development of craniofacial musculature in Monodelphis domestica (Marsupialia, Didelphidae). J. Morph. 222, 149-173.
143. Smith, K. K. 1997 Comparative patterns of craniofacial development in eutherian and metatherian mammals. Evolution 51, 1663-1678.
144. Sober, E. 1988 Likelihood and convergence. Phil. Sci. 55, 228-237.
145. Springer, M. S., Westerman, M. & Kirsch, J. A. W. 1994 Relationships among orders and families of marsupials based on 12S ribosomal DNA sequences and the timing of the marsupial radiation. J. Mammal. Evol. 2, 85-115.
146. Springer, M. S., Kirsch, J. A. W. & Case, J. A. 1997 The chronicle of marsupial evolution. In Molecular evolution and adaptive radiation (ed. T. J. Givnish & K. J. Sytsma), pp. 129-161. Cambridge University Press.
147. Starck, D. 1995 Säugetiere (Teil 5; Band II: Wirbeltiere). Lehrbuch der Speziellen Zoologie. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
148. Sullivan, J. & Swoffbrd, D. L. 1997 Are guinea pigs rodents? The importance of adequate models in molecular phylogenetics. J. Mammal. Evol. 4, 77-86.
149. Tyndale-Biscoe, C. H. 1973 Life of marsupials. New York: American Elsevier.
150. Tyndale-Biscoe, C. H. & Renfree, M. 1987 Reproductive physiology of marsupials. Cambridge University Press.
151. Vaughn, T. A. 1986 Mammalogy, 3rd edn. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
152. Watson, D. M. S. 1916 The monotreme skull. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 207, 311-374.
153. Werman, S. D., Springer, M. S. & Britten, R. J. 1996 Nucleic acids. I. DNA-DNA hybridization. In Molecular systematics, 2nd edn (ed. D. M. Hillis, C. Moritz & B. K. Mable), pp. 169-203. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
154. Westerman, M. & Edwards, D. 1992 DNA hybridisation and the phylogeny of monotremes. In Platypus and echidnas (ed. M. L. Augee), pp. 28-34. Sydney: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
155. Wible, J. R. 1990 Petrosals of late Cretaceous marsupials from North America, and a cladistic analysis of the petrosal in therian mammals. J. Vert. Paleont. 11, 1-28.
156. Wible, J. R. & Hopson, J. A. 1993 Basicranial evidence for early mammal phylogeny. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians, and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 45-62. New York: Springer.
157. Williston, S. 1917 The phylogeny and classification of reptiles. J. Geol. 25, 411-421.
158. Williston, S. 1925 The osteology of the reptiles. Harvard University Press.
159. Witmer, L. M. 1991 Perspectives on avian origins. In Origins of the higher groups of tetrapods: controversy and consensus (ed. H.-P. Schultze & L. Trueb), pp. 427-466. Cornell University Press.
160. Zeller, U. 1993 Ontogenetic evidence for cranial homologies in monotremes and therians, with special reference to Ornithorhynchus. In Mammal phylogeny: mesozoic differentiation, multituberculates, monotremes, early therians and marsupials (ed. F. S. Szalay, M. J. Novacek & M. C. McKenna), pp. 95-107. New York: Springer.
161. Zeller, U. 1997 Origin of mammalian reproduction. J. Morph. 232, 345.
162. Zug, G. R. 1993 Herpetology. San Diego: Academic Press.