Public action and its limits: Re-examining the politics of hunger alleviation in eastern Indian

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 19, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 873-892

  Currie, Bob ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DECISION MAKING; FOOD SUPPLY; LOCAL PARTICIPATION; POVERTY ALLEVIATION;

INDIA;

EID: 0032467660     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599814073     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. J Dreze, Famine Prevention in India, WIDER Discussion Paper No 3, Development Economics Research Programme, London School of Economics, 1988, p 109.
2. L T Prestos, President, World Bank, April 1992 in Foreword to World Bank, Governance and Development, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992, p v.
3. See further, J Dreze & A Sen, Hunger and Public Action, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989; E Ahmed, J Dreze, J Hills & A Sen (eds), The Security in Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen (eds), The Political Economy of Hunger (3 vols), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; and J Dreze & A Sen, Indian Development: Selected Regional. Perspectives, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
4. See further, J Dreze & A Sen, Hunger and Public Action, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989; E Ahmed, J Dreze, J Hills & A Sen (eds), The Security in Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen (eds), The Political Economy of Hunger (3 vols), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; and J Dreze & A Sen, Indian Development: Selected Regional. Perspectives, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
5. See further, J Dreze & A Sen, Hunger and Public Action, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989; E Ahmed, J Dreze, J Hills & A Sen (eds), The Security in Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen (eds), The Political Economy of Hunger (3 vols), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; and J Dreze & A Sen, Indian Development: Selected Regional. Perspectives, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
6. See further, J Dreze & A Sen, Hunger and Public Action, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989; E Ahmed, J Dreze, J Hills & A Sen (eds), The Security in Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen (eds), The Political Economy of Hunger (3 vols), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; and J Dreze & A Sen, Indian Development: Selected Regional. Perspectives, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
7. See further, J Dreze & A Sen, Hunger and Public Action, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989; E Ahmed, J Dreze, J Hills & A Sen (eds), The Security in Developing Countries, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen (eds), The Political Economy of Hunger (3 vols), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991; J Dreze & A Sen, India: Economic Development and Social Opportunity, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996; and J Dreze & A Sen, Indian Development: Selected Regional. Perspectives, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997.
8. Dreze & Sen, India: Economic Development, p 87.
9. Dreze and Sen use the generic term 'public action' broadly to describe the set of collective actions utilised by members of the 'public' within legally validated and constitutionally approved channels designed to place pressure on government to administer efficacious relief and welfare policy during periods of hardship.
10. Sen argues that use 'capability approach' refers to a person's ability to achieve various valuable 'functionings' as parts of living, The term 'functionings' refers to parts of the state of a person, notably the various, things that she or he manages to do or be in leading a life. A person's 'capability' describes the alternative combinations of functionings that she or he can achieve and from which she or he can choose one combination. A Sen, 'Capability and wellbeing', in M. Nussbaum & A Sen (eds), The Quality of Life, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993, pp 31-32.
11. A Appadurai, 'How moral is South Asia's economy? A review article'. Journal of Asian Studies, XLIII (3), 1984, pp 481-497. The term entitlement has been used by Amartya Sen to refer to people's ability to command food through the 'legal means available in society', including food obtained from their own household, production, from made and exchange, food bought with wages from paid employment, and food provided directly by the state. See further in A Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p 1ff.
12. A Appadurai, 'How moral is South Asia's economy? A review article'. Journal of Asian Studies, XLIII (3), 1984, pp 481-497. The term entitlement has been used by Amartya Sen to refer to people's ability to command food through the 'legal means available in society', including food obtained from their own household, production, from made and exchange, food bought with wages from paid employment, and food provided directly by the state. See further in A Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981, p 1ff.
13. L Doyal & I Gough, A Theory of Human Need, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991, ch 10.
14. These debates are summarised in B Currie, 'Food crisis and prevention: an analysis in the Indian context', Contemporary South Asia, 1(1), 1992. pp 93-111.
15. See, for example, A Sen, 'Food and freedom', World development, 17(6), 1989, pp 769-781; and A Sen, 'Individual freedom as a social commitment', New York Review of Books, 14 June 1990.
16. See, for example, A Sen, 'Food and freedom', World development, 17(6), 1989, pp 769-781; and A Sen, 'Individual freedom as a social commitment', New York Review of Books, 14 June 1990.
17. The farm of democracy implied within this model closely parallels the minimum conditions suggested by Robert Dahl for 'polyarchy' to exist. Four of them refer to the underlying principles of electoral democracy (the existence of elected officials, free and fair elections; inclusive suffrag, the right to stand for office) and three refer to the social and political freedoms that must be present for elections to be fair and competitive (notably freedom of information; alternative sources of information; associational autonomy). See R Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989. There is also a useful discussion in G O'Donnell, 'Illusions about consolidation', in L Diamond, M F Plattner, Y Chu & H Tien, Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives, Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1997; and D Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation'. Review of African Political Economy, 60, 1994, pp 157-172.
18. The farm of democracy implied within this model closely parallels the minimum conditions suggested by Robert Dahl for 'polyarchy' to exist. Four of them refer to the underlying principles of electoral democracy (the existence of elected officials, free and fair elections; inclusive suffrag, the right to stand for office) and three refer to the social and political freedoms that must be present for elections to be fair and competitive (notably freedom of information; alternative sources of information; associational autonomy). See R Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989. There is also a useful discussion in G O'Donnell, 'Illusions about consolidation', in L Diamond, M F Plattner, Y Chu & H Tien, Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives, Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1997; and D Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation'. Review of African Political Economy, 60, 1994, pp 157-172.
19. The farm of democracy implied within this model closely parallels the minimum conditions suggested by Robert Dahl for 'polyarchy' to exist. Four of them refer to the underlying principles of electoral democracy (the existence of elected officials, free and fair elections; inclusive suffrag, the right to stand for office) and three refer to the social and political freedoms that must be present for elections to be fair and competitive (notably freedom of information; alternative sources of information; associational autonomy). See R Dahl, Democracy and its Critics, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989. There is also a useful discussion in G O'Donnell, 'Illusions about consolidation', in L Diamond, M F Plattner, Y Chu & H Tien, Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives, Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1997; and D Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation'. Review of African Political Economy, 60, 1994, pp 157-172.
20. JS Mill argues that 'a good form of government' is measured by 'the degree to which it tends to increase the sum of good qualities in the governed, collectively and individually, since besides that their well-being is the sole object of government', JS Mill, 'Considerations on representative government', in Mill, On Liberty and Other Essays, Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1861] 1991, p227.
21. 'What is the purpose of political association? The security and prosperity of the associates', JJ Rousseau, The Social Contract, Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1762] 1994, p 116. Rousseau argues that, 'all other things being equal, the government under which, without recourse to extraneous means, with no naturalization or colonies, the citizens most flourish and multiply is the best'. Ibid, p 117. Hence, like JS Mill, Rousseau perceives the well-being of citizens to be a mark and measure of good government.
22. 'What is the purpose of political association? The security and prosperity of the associates', JJ Rousseau, The Social Contract, Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1762] 1994, p 116. Rousseau argues that, 'all other things being equal, the government under which, without recourse to extraneous means, with no naturalization or colonies, the citizens most flourish and multiply is the best'. Ibid, p 117. Hence, like JS Mill, Rousseau perceives the well-being of citizens to be a mark and measure of good government.
23. A de Tocqueville, Democracy in America Ware, UK: Wordsworth, [1840] 1998, p 226.
24. Aristotle, The Politics, London: Penguin, 1962, pp 54, 59.
25. The World Bank defines governance to be 'the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country's economic and Social resources for development'. Governance and Development, p 1.
26. See especially World Bank, Governance and Development; and World Bank, Governance: The World Bank's Experience, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994.
27. See especially World Bank, Governance and Development; and World Bank, Governance: The World Bank's Experience, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994.
28. 'The role of the fund in governance issues', in IMF, Annual Report of the Executive Board for the Year Ended April 30, 1997, Washington, DC: IMF, 1997, p 41.
29. OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Participatory Development and Good Governance, Paris: OECD, 1997, pp 3-4. These issues are discussed more fully in OECD, DAC Expert Group on Aid Evaluation: Evaluation of Programs Promoting Participatory Development and Good Governance: Synthesis Report, Paris: OECD, 1997.
30. OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Participatory Development and Good Governance, Paris: OECD, 1997, pp 3-4. These issues are discussed more fully in OECD, DAC Expert Group on Aid Evaluation: Evaluation of Programs Promoting Participatory Development and Good Governance: Synthesis Report, Paris: OECD, 1997.
31. For evaluation and criticisms, see especially A Leftwich, 'Bringing politics back in: towards a model of the developmental state', Journal of Development Studies, 31(3), 1995, pp 400-427.
32. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
33. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
34. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
35. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
36. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
37. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
38. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
39. OECD, DAC Final Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group, p 3. For analysis and further discussion refer to B Currie, 'Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: conceptual and empirical problems', Third World Quarterly, 17(4), 1996, pp 787-807; D Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, Dublin, September 1995; D Williams & T Young, 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory', Political Studies, XLII, 1994, pp 84-100; A Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, 14(3) 1993, pp 605-624; A Leftwich (ed). Democracy and Development: Theory and Practice, London: Polity Press, 1996; M Robinson (ed), 'Towards democratic governance', IDS Bulletin, 26(2), 1995 and; M Moore (ed), 'Good government?', IDS Bulletin, 24(1), 1993.
40. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
41. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
42. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
43. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
44. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
45. See especially RAW Rhodes, 'The New Governance: Governing without Government', Political Studies, XLIV, 1996, pp 652-667; RAW Rhodes, Understanding Governance: Policy Networks, Governance, Reflexivity and Accountability, Buckingham: Open University Press, 1997; Jan Kooiman (ed). Modern Governance: New Government - Society Interactions, London: Sage, 1993; B Marin & R Mayntz (eds), Policy Networks: Empirical Evidence and Theoretical Considerations, Boulder, Co: Westview, 1991; N Heyzer, J Riker & A Quizon, Governments - NGO Relations in Asia: Prospects and Challenges for People-Centred Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995; and, briefly, OECD. Strengthening Development Partnership: A Checklist, Paris: OECD, 1998.
46. Rhodes, Understanding Governance, p 55.
47. Ibid, pp 11-12.
48. Rhodes, The New Governance, p 653. Indeed Rhodes highlights a number of limitations that such policy networks may have: the process of 'hollowing out' the state may erode accountability and obscure who is accountable for what; fragmentation may lead to reduced control over implementation; and, ipso facto, the state becomes a collection of interorganisational networks made up of governmental and societal actors with no sovereign actor able to steer or regulate (pp 662-666).
49. Kooiman, Modern Governance, pp 2-5.
50. Dreze, Famine Prevention In India, p 101 ff.
51. As outlined in the texts cited in footnote 3.
52. Dreze & Sen, India: Economic Development, p 88.
53. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
54. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
55. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
56. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
57. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
58. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
59. The contested nature of the 'public sphere' is discussed more fully in E Chamey, 'Political liberalism, deliberative democracy, and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, 92(1), 1998. On this issue refer also to H Arendt, The Human Condition, Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1958, esp Part II; J Cohen & A Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992; M Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, Oxford: Berghahn, 1995; S Benhabib, Situating the Self, New York: Routledge, 1992; J Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989; and J Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.
60. 'Civil society' is an imprecise and disputed concept (as is its relationship to the state and economy), commonly used to refer to the associational space between the family and the state, encompassing the intermediate groups and voluntary associations occupying that space. The term is used here to represent the space of uncoerced human association and the relational networks - established for the sake of ideology, interest, faith and family - that fill this space. See Michael Walzer, "The concept of civil society', in Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, p 7; John Dryzek, 'Political inclusion and the dynamics of democratization', American Political Science Review, 90(1), 1996, pp 475, 481.
61. 'Civil society' is an imprecise and disputed concept (as is its relationship to the state and economy), commonly used to refer to the associational space between the family and the state, encompassing the intermediate groups and voluntary associations occupying that space. The term is used here to represent the space of uncoerced human association and the relational networks - established for the sake of ideology, interest, faith and family - that fill this space. See Michael Walzer, "The concept of civil society', in Walzer (ed), Toward a Global Civil Society, p 7; John Dryzek, 'Political inclusion and the dynamics of democratization', American Political Science Review, 90(1), 1996, pp 475, 481.
62. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, 'The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
63. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, 'The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
64. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, "The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
65. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, "The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
66. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, "The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
67. These concerns have received detailed attention most famously in exchanges between Ralph Miliband and Nicos Poulantzas in the early 1970s. See N Poulantzas, 'The problem of the capitalist state', New Left Review, 52, 1969, pp 67-78; R Miliband, The State in Capitalist Society, London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1969; Miliband, "The capitalist state', New left Review, 59, 1970, pp 53-60; M Poulantzas, Political Power and Social classes, London; New Left Books, 1973; Poulantzas, 'The capitalist state: a reply to Miliband and Laclau, New Left Review, 95, 1976, pp 63-83. Useful commentary is provided in Simon Clarke (ed), The State Debate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991.
68. D Held, 'Power and legitimacy', in Held, Political Theory and the Modern State; Essays on State Power and Democracy, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984, p 148.
69. C Offe, Contradictions of the Welfare State, London; Hutchinson, 1984, p 162.
70. ibid, p 135.
71. Political authority is used in this context to refer to a justifiable and limited surrender of judgement by subjects - providing a context in which decisions on public matters will often take place outside fully deliberative and participatory mechanisms, but will do so in ways that are socially regulated. Hence the relationship is not one of coercion, dominance, manipulation or acquiescence; rather it depends upon agents authorising others and judging that their authorisation is warranted. ME Warren, 'Deliberative democracy and authority', American Political Science Review, 90(1), 1996, pp 46, 54. For further analysis see J Bohman & W Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997; and John Elster (ed). Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1998.
72. Political authority is used in this context to refer to a justifiable and limited surrender of judgement by subjects - providing a context in which decisions on public matters will often take place outside fully deliberative and participatory mechanisms, but will do so in ways that are socially regulated. Hence the relationship is not one of coercion, dominance, manipulation or acquiescence; rather it depends upon agents authorising others and judging that their authorisation is warranted. ME Warren, 'Deliberative democracy and authority', American Political Science Review, 90(1), 1996, pp 46, 54. For further analysis see J Bohman & W Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997; and John Elster (ed). Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1998.
73. Political authority is used in this context to refer to a justifiable and limited surrender of judgement by subjects - providing a context in which decisions on public matters will often take place outside fully deliberative and participatory mechanisms, but will do so in ways that are socially regulated. Hence the relationship is not one of coercion, dominance, manipulation or acquiescence; rather it depends upon agents authorising others and judging that their authorisation is warranted. ME Warren, 'Deliberative democracy and authority', American Political Science Review, 90(1), 1996, pp 46, 54. For further analysis see J Bohman & W Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997; and John Elster (ed). Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1998.
74. See further in S Saberwal & H Seivers (eds), Rules, Laws, Constitutions, New Delhi: Sage, 1998; J Faundez (ed). Good Government and Law: Legal and Institutional Reform in Developing Countries, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997; and more generally B Fine, Democracy and the Rule of Law: Liberal Ideals and Marxist Critique, London: Pluto Press, 1984.
75. See further in S Saberwal & H Seivers (eds), Rules, Laws, Constitutions, New Delhi: Sage, 1998; J Faundez (ed). Good Government and Law: Legal and Institutional Reform in Developing Countries, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997; and more generally B Fine, Democracy and the Rule of Law: Liberal Ideals and Marxist Critique, London: Pluto Press, 1984.
76. See further in S Saberwal & H Seivers (eds), Rules, Laws, Constitutions, New Delhi: Sage, 1998; J Faundez (ed). Good Government and Law: Legal and Institutional Reform in Developing Countries, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997; and more generally B Fine, Democracy and the Rule of Law: Liberal Ideals and Marxist Critique, London: Pluto Press, 1984.
77. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
78. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
79. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
80. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
81. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
82. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
83. Although the mechanisms concerned are widely contested. For further discussion refer, for example, to D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, Basingstoke: Macmilan, 1991; William Connolly (ed), legitimacy and the State, Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; B Parekh, 'A misconceived discourse on political obligation', Political Studies, XLI, 1993, pp 236-251; C Pateman, The Problem of Political Obligation: A Critique of Political Theory, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1985; M Warren, Deliberative Democracy and Authority. More broadly, see also S M Lipset, Political Man, London: Mercury Books, 1959, esp ch III; and J Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heineman, 1973, esp Part. III.
84. D Beetham, The Legitimation of Power, p 13ff.
85. Indeed, Christian Bay argues that the only acceptable justification of a particular form, of government, and that which determines the limits of the legitimate demands that it may place on the individual's obedience and loyally, is that it serves human needs and that it does so better than other forms of government. Bay, 'Needs, wants and political legitimacy', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(1), 1968, p 241. This theme is discussed further in M Walzer, Spheres of Justice, New York: Basic Books, 1983, esp ch 3; R Plant, H Lesser & P Taylor-Gooby, Political Philosophy and Social Welfare: Essays on the Normative Basis of Social Welfare, London: Routledge, 1980; and R. Plant, Modern Political Thought, Oxford: Blackwell, 1991, esp ch 7.
86. Indeed, Christian Bay argues that the only acceptable justification of a particular form, of government, and that which determines the limits of the legitimate demands that it may place on the individual's obedience and loyally, is that it serves human needs and that it does so better than other forms of government. Bay, 'Needs, wants and political legitimacy', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(1), 1968, p 241. This theme is discussed further in M Walzer, Spheres of Justice, New York: Basic Books, 1983, esp ch 3; R Plant, H Lesser & P Taylor-Gooby, Political Philosophy and Social Welfare: Essays on the Normative Basis of Social Welfare, London: Routledge, 1980; and R. Plant, Modern Political Thought, Oxford: Blackwell, 1991, esp ch 7.
87. Indeed, Christian Bay argues that the only acceptable justification of a particular form, of government, and that which determines the limits of the legitimate demands that it may place on the individual's obedience and loyally, is that it serves human needs and that it does so better than other forms of government. Bay, 'Needs, wants and political legitimacy', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(1), 1968, p 241. This theme is discussed further in M Walzer, Spheres of Justice, New York: Basic Books, 1983, esp ch 3; R Plant, H Lesser & P Taylor-Gooby, Political Philosophy and Social Welfare: Essays on the Normative Basis of Social Welfare, London: Routledge, 1980; and R. Plant, Modern Political Thought, Oxford: Blackwell, 1991, esp ch 7.
88. Indeed, Christian Bay argues that the only acceptable justification of a particular form, of government, and that which determines the limits of the legitimate demands that it may place on the individual's obedience and loyally, is that it serves human needs and that it does so better than other forms of government. Bay, 'Needs, wants and political legitimacy', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 1(1), 1968, p 241. This theme is discussed further in M Walzer, Spheres of Justice, New York: Basic Books, 1983, esp ch 3; R Plant, H Lesser & P Taylor-Gooby, Political Philosophy and Social Welfare: Essays on the Normative Basis of Social Welfare, London: Routledge, 1980; and R. Plant, Modern Political Thought, Oxford: Blackwell, 1991, esp ch 7.
89. Beetham, The legitimation of Power, p 33.
90. This theme is expanded briefly in O Morrissey, "Political economy aspects of reform', Structural Adjustment Forum Newsletter No 7, Overseas Development Association-Structural Adjustment Forum, April 1997.
91. World Bank, Governance and Development, p 24.
92. See in particular Arendt, The Human Condition, esp Part II and Part V: and Arendt, 'Communicative power', in S Lukes (ed), Power, Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
93. See in particular Arendt, The Human Condition, esp Part II and Part V: and Arendt, 'Communicative power', in S Lukes (ed), Power, Oxford: Blackwell, 1986.
94. Especially J Habermas, 'Towards a theory of communicative competence', Inquiry, 13(4) 1970; Habermas, 'On systematically distorted communication', Inquiry, 13(2), 1970, pp 205-208; and Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heinemann, 1973. For useful commentary see T McCarthy, 'A theory of communicative competence', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 3, 1973, pp 135-156; and McCarthy's Introduction to Habermas, Legitimation Crisis.
95. Especially J Habermas, 'Towards a theory of communicative competence', Inquiry, 13(4) 1970; Habermas, 'On systematically distorted communication', Inquiry, 13(2), 1970, pp 205-208; and Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heinemann, 1973. For useful commentary see T McCarthy, 'A theory of communicative competence', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 3, 1973, pp 135-156; and McCarthy's Introduction to Habermas, Legitimation Crisis.
96. Especially J Habermas, 'Towards a theory of communicative competence', Inquiry, 13(4) 1970; Habermas, 'On systematically distorted communication', Inquiry, 13(2), 1970, pp 205-208; and Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heinemann, 1973. For useful commentary see T McCarthy, 'A theory of communicative competence', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 3, 1973, pp 135-156; and McCarthy's Introduction to Habermas, Legitimation Crisis.
97. Especially J Habermas, 'Towards a theory of communicative competence', Inquiry, 13(4) 1970; Habermas, 'On systematically distorted communication', Inquiry, 13(2), 1970, pp 205-208; and Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heinemann, 1973. For useful commentary see T McCarthy, 'A theory of communicative competence', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 3, 1973, pp 135-156; and McCarthy's Introduction to Habermas, Legitimation Crisis.
98. Especially J Habermas, 'Towards a theory of communicative competence', Inquiry, 13(4) 1970; Habermas, 'On systematically distorted communication', Inquiry, 13(2), 1970, pp 205-208; and Habermas, Legitimation Crisis, London: Heinemann, 1973. For useful commentary see T McCarthy, 'A theory of communicative competence', Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 3, 1973, pp 135-156; and McCarthy's Introduction to Habermas, Legitimation Crisis.
99. It is assumed here that the authority of government is not a permanent endowment, but based on the constant acceptance and renewal of its subjects. Indeed, civil authority has no foundation other than that those subject to it feel it to be legitimate. For further discussion, see B Parekh, Misperceived Discourse on Political Obligation and other references cited in footnote 39.
100. As Offe argues, 'the legitimating power of formal constitutional rules reaches as far, and only as far, as the governing elites comply with those rules and as far as the ruled are willing to refrain from modes of political behaviour that are not covered for them by the constitution. Offe, Contradictions of the Welfare State, p 135.
101. Kalahandi district was subdivided in 1993, during the reorganisation of Orissa's previous district structure, to form two new districts: Naupada and Kalahandi. The current Naupada district corresponds roughly to the erstwhile Naupada Subdivision of Kalahandi district, while the current Kalahandi district roughly follows the territory of the former Kalahandi and Dharamgarh Subdivisions.
102. Public interest litigation is an integral component of the poverty jurisprudence of the Supreme Court of India, developed since the late 1970s, with the intention of making the judicial process more accessible to disadvantaged sections of society and safeguarding their human rights. For a more complete discussion refer to S Ahuja, People, Law and Justice: Casebook on Public Interest Litigation, Volumes I and II, London: Sangam, 1991.
103. Orissa High Court, Report on Original Jurisdiction Case No 3517 of 1988 and Original Jurisdiction Case No 525 of 1989, Cuttack: Orissa High Court, 1992, pp 1-5. The content of these legal cases is discussed more fully in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich and flaws for the poor? Legal action and food insecurity in the Kalahandi case', in H O'Neill & J Toye (eds), A World Without Famine: New Approaches to Aid and Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998.
104. Orissa High Court, Report on Original Jurisdiction Case No 3517 of 1988 and Original Jurisdiction Case No 525 of 1989, Cuttack: Orissa High Court, 1992, pp 1-5. The content of these legal cases is discussed more fully in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich and flaws for the poor? Legal action and food insecurity in the Kalahandi case', in H O'Neill & J Toye (eds), A World Without Famine: New Approaches to Aid and Development, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998.
105. This study draws on data collected as part of an ongoing longitudinal study by the author, based on fieldwork visits to the region in 1992, 1994 and 1996. Information relating to legal action brought against the Government of Orissa is drawn from reports of the Orissa High Court and the Supreme Court of India, and from independent interviews conducted by the author with petitioners and legal advisors involved in these proceedings. The coverage and effectiveness of relief and development policies is evaluated on the basis of interviews with government officers, NGO staff, elected representatives and private contractors involved with policy making and implementation within western Orissa. Public opinion regarding the quality of programme administration in these regions was made through group and individual interviews in selected villages in the arid Naupada district and in the hilly, predominantly adivasi, Thuamur Rampur region of Kalahandi district.
106. Empirical results are detailed more fully in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor', and Currie, The Politics of Hunger in India: A Study of Democracy, Governance and Kalahandi's Poverty, Basingstoke. Macmillan and New York: St Martin's, 1999.
107. Significantly, the BJP'S principal ally in Orissa constituencies during the 1998 elections was the Biju Janata Dal, under the leadership of Naveen Patnaik, the late Biju Patnaik's son. Though the Biju Janata Dal maintained that this, alliance was established primarily to serve as an anti-Congress front within the state, by extending electoral support to the BJP the Biju Janata Dal appeared to seriously compromise its claim to represent a bulwark, against the 'onslaught of communal forces' within Orissa. Hindu International Edition (Chennai), 7 February 1998 and 7 March 1998.
108. Indeed the United Front (with the Janata Dal as its principal constituent party within Orissa) failed to secure a single seat in 1998 12th Lok Sabha elections within Orissa, having held five seats before the election. The Congress (I) won only five Orissa constituencies in the 1998 general elections, having held 16 seats out of 21 Orissa Lok Sabha seats going into the election. Times of India Electronic News Service, April 10 1998.
109. The centrality of an effective legal framework for development is clearly emphasised in OECD, World Bank and IMF conceptions of 'good governance'. See OECD, DAC Expert Group on Aid Evaluation: Synthesis Report, pp 28-39; World Bank, Governance and Development; pp 28-38; and IMF Survey, 26(15), Washington, DC: IMF, 5 August 1997, 'IMF adopts guidelines regarding governance issues'.
110. The centrality of an effective legal framework for development is clearly emphasised in OECD, World Bank and IMF conceptions of 'good governance'. See OECD, DAC Expert Group on Aid Evaluation: Synthesis Report, pp 28-39; World Bank, Governance and Development; pp 28-38; and IMF Survey, 26(15), Washington, DC: IMF, 5 August 1997, 'IMF adopts guidelines regarding governance issues'.
111. The centrality of an effective legal framework for development is clearly emphasised in OECD, World Bank and IMF conceptions of 'good governance'. See OECD, DAC Expert Group on Aid Evaluation: Synthesis Report, pp 28-39; World Bank, Governance and Development; pp 28-38; and IMF Survey, 26(15), Washington, DC: IMF, 5 August 1997, 'IMF adopts guidelines regarding governance issues'.
112. See further in Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?': and Currie, The Politics of Hunger in India.
113. See further in Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poo?': and Currie, The Politics of Hunger in India.
114. The National Human Rights Commission noted, during its evaluation of government-managed welfare schemes in Kalahandi, Naupada and Bolangir blocks in December 1997, that welfare schemes 'did not cover all deserving cases', particularly in old age, widow and disability entitlements. Further, it concluded that, because of the high level, of deprivation prevailing in the area, 'the possibility of starvation deaths could not be ruled out'. The Commission ruled that deaths bad taken, place in at least three recent cases because of 'prolongued malnutrition' or 'hunger and starvation'. Indian Express Electronic News Service, 29 March 1998. I am grateful to Dan Banik of the
115. Drezs & Sen, India: Economic Development, p 88.
116. Indian Express (Vizanagaram edition), 29 August 1987.
117. Tribute (Chandigarh), 16 March 1987.
118. Indian Express (Vizanagaram edition), 8 August 1987. In turn, this statement was described as 'black lies' by Janata Dal leader Biju Patnaik.
119. 'Gountia' is an Oriya term referring to the former village headmen in the region.
120. Held, Political Theory and the Modern State, p 149.
121. Interesting parallels may be drawn with comparative studies in the African context by Jean-François Bayart (in Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, London: Longman, 1991) and in the Latin American context by Guillermo O'Donnell (in O'Dennell, Modernisation and Bureaucratic - Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Berkeley CA: California University Press, 1973, esp ch 3). Although writing about a markedly different political context, notably a 'bureaucratic - authoritarian' political system in Argentina between 1955-66, O'Donnell notes the tendency for governments, when faced, with generalised public disaffection and challenges to their legitimacy, to adopt policies that best satisfy those sectors of society which appear most challenging at the time. By doing so they look for those strategies that are most effective for maintaining political stability and for preserving the government's survival in office, O'Donnell rightly notes that at such times formally prescribed patterns often become poor indicators of actual political behaviour (p 145).
122. Interesting parallels may be drawn with comparative studies in the African context by Jean-François Bayart (in Bayart, The State in Africa: The Politics of the Belly, London: Longman, 1991) and in the Latin American context by Guillermo O'Donnell (in O'Dennell, Modernisation and Bureaucratic - Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Berkeley CA: California University Press, 1973, esp ch 3). Although writing about a markedly different political context, notably a 'bureaucratic - authoritarian' political system in Argentina between 1955-66, O'Donnell notes the tendency for governments, when faced, with generalised public disaffection and challenges to their legitimacy, to adopt policies that best satisfy those sectors of society which appear most challenging at the time. By doing so they look for those strategies that are most effective for maintaining political stability and for preserving the government's survival in office, O'Donnell rightly notes that at such times formally prescribed patterns often become poor indicators of actual political behaviour (p 145).
123. At the time of writing this article, the Orissa Minimum Wage stood at Rs25 per day (equivalent to £0.35 sterling per day, at a conversion rate of Rs70.32 = £1 on 1 July 1998).
124. Indeed, by providing additional avenues for rent seeking and corruption, these partnerships have regularly had negative implications for administrative efficiency in programme management. However, regional governments have been forced to bear the financial costs of such losses in order to reap the political spin-offs of Such arrangements - notably in terms of the opportunities these provide to secure the acquiscence and support of (ie to 'bind in') strategic groups.
125. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
126. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
127. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
128. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
129. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
130. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
131. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
132. J C Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance, Yale: Yale University Press, 1985. For further discussion in this area refer, for example, to C Tilly, 'Food supply and public order in modern Europe', in Tilly (ed), The Formation of Nation States in Western Europe, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975; E P Thompson, Customs in Common, London; Merlin, 1991; J Walton & D Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment, Oxford: Blackewell, 1994; D Arnold, 'Looting, grain riots and government policy in South India 1918', Past and Present, 84, 1979, pp 111-145; J C Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in South East Asia, New Haven: CT; Yale University Press, 1976; David Hardiman (ed), Peasant Resistance in India, 1854-1914, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; and R Gaha, Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
133. Because of low literacy and limited education, lack of local representation in elected positions and administrative posts, lack of representation from vulnerable communities (lower castes, scheduled tribes, women) in influencial positions, and a range of other reasons.
134. Orissa Administrative Service and Indian Administrative Service, the major civil service bodies providing government officers for key administrative posts in the State.
135. A region that is more economically developed titan western Orissa, that has been able to maintain higher standards of education and literacy, and that provides the location for Orissa's main centres of political and economic power, notably in Bhubaneswar and Cuttack.
136. For example, figures for Government of Orissa expenditure made available, to the Orissa High Court inquiry into starvation deaths in Kalahandi (the 'Mishra Commission Inquiry') indicate that Rs764.156 million (approx £23.8 million Sterling) were spent on development measures and employment creation schemes by Block Development Officers within the district between 1987 and 1989 alone. Report of Inquiry into Original Jurisdiction Cases No 3517/88 and No 525/89, Cuttack: Orissa High Court, 1992, pp 43-45.
137. See further in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?'. A further discussion of corruption-transfer mechanisms in India and their effects on bureaucratic initiatives is advanced in, R Wade, 'The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development', World Development, 13(4), 1985, pp 467-497. See also B Harriss-White & G White (eds), 'Liberalization and the new corruption', IDS Bulletin, 27(2), 1996; P Heywood (ed), Political Corruption, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997; and, more generally, A Kroeger, 'The political economy of rent-seeking society', American Economic Review, 64, 1974, pp 219-303.
138. See further in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?'. A further discussion of corruption-transfer mechanisms in India and their effects on bureaucratic initiatives is advanced in, R Wade, 'The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development', World Development, 13(4), 1985, pp 467-497. See also B Harriss-White & G White (eds), 'Liberalization and the new corruption', IDS Bulletin, 27(2), 1996; P Heywood (ed), Political Corruption, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997; and, more generally, A Kroeger, 'The political economy of rent-seeking society', American Economic Review, 64, 1974, pp 219-303.
139. See further in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?'. A further discussion of corruption-transfer mechanisms in India and their effects on bureaucratic initiatives is advanced in, R Wade, 'The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development', World Development, 13(4), 1985, pp 467-497. See also B Harriss-White & G White (eds), 'Liberalization and the new corruption', IDS Bulletin, 27(2), 1996; P Heywood (ed), Political Corruption, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997; and, more generally, A Kroeger, 'The political economy of rent-seeking society', American Economic Review, 64, 1974, pp 219-303.
140. See further in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?'. A further discussion of corruption-transfer mechanisms in India and their effects on bureaucratic initiatives is advanced in, R Wade, 'The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development', World Development, 13(4), 1985, pp 467-497. See also B Harriss-White & G White (eds), 'Liberalization and the new corruption', IDS Bulletin, 27(2), 1996; P Heywood (ed), Political Corruption, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997; and, more generally, A Kroeger, 'The political economy of rent-seeking society', American Economic Review, 64, 1974, pp 219-303.
141. See further in B Currie, 'Laws for the rich: flaws for the poor?'. A further discussion of corruption-transfer mechanisms in India and their effects on bureaucratic initiatives is advanced in, R Wade, 'The market for public office: why the Indian state is not better at development', World Development, 13(4), 1985, pp 467-497. See also B Harriss-White & G White (eds), 'Liberalization and the new corruption', IDS Bulletin, 27(2), 1996; P Heywood (ed), Political Corruption, Oxford, Blackwell, 1997; and, more generally, A Kroeger, 'The political economy of rent-seeking society', American Economic Review, 64, 1974, pp 219-303.
142. M Parenti, Democracy for the Few, New York: St Martin's Press, 1983, p 217, a point noted from P Kimball, The Disconnected, New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, p 17.
143. M Parenti, Democracy for the Few, New York: St Martin's Press, 1983, p 217, a point noted from P Kimball, The Disconnected, New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, p 17.