Governance, democracy and economic adjustment in India: Conceptual and empirical problems

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 17, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 787-808

  Currie, Bob ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HUDDERSFIELD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; GOVERNANCE; STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT; WORLD BANK POLICY;

INDIA;

EID: 0030419810     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599615380     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. For an introduction to this set of issues, refer to IDS Bulletin, Vol 24, No 1, 1993; and Adrian Leftwich 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993.
2. For an introduction to this set of issues, refer to IDS Bulletin, Vol 24, No 1, 1993; and Adrian Leftwich 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993.
3. See further in R O Keohane & J S Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1977; Richard Cooper The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community, New York, McGraw Hill, 1968; and Stephen Gill & David Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988.
4. See further in R O Keohane & J S Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1977; Richard Cooper The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community, New York, McGraw Hill, 1968; and Stephen Gill & David Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988.
5. See further in R O Keohane & J S Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, Boston, MA: Little Brown, 1977; Richard Cooper The Economics of Interdependence: Economic Policy in the Atlantic Community, New York, McGraw Hill, 1968; and Stephen Gill & David Law, The Global Political Economy: Perspectives, Problems and Policies, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1988.
6. While recognising that there are differences of policy focus and orientation between the different actors concerned, the 'Washington Consensus' (or the 'view from Washington') has been used to describe the development agenda of the Bretton Woods institutions (IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO) and the US government. See further in Lancaster, 'Governance and development: the view from Washington', IDS Bulletin, Vol 14, No 3, 1993; and John Williamson, 'Democracy and the "Washington Consensus"', World Development, Vol 21, No 8, 1993.
7. While recognising that there are differences of policy focus and orientation between the different actors concerned, the 'Washington Consensus' (or the 'view from Washington') has been used to describe the development agenda of the Bretton Woods institutions (IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO) and the US government. See further in Lancaster, 'Governance and development: the view from Washington', IDS Bulletin, Vol 14, No 3, 1993; and John Williamson, 'Democracy and the "Washington Consensus"', World Development, Vol 21, No 8, 1993.
8. World Bank, Governance and Development, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992. For analysis refer particularly to the articles by Lancaster, Moore and Osborne in IDS Bulletin, Vol 14, No 3, 1993.
9. World Bank, Governance and Development, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992. For analysis refer particularly to the articles by Lancaster, Moore and Osborne in IDS Bulletin, Vol 14, No 3, 1993.
10. World Bank, Governance: The World Bank's Experience, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1994, p 1.
11. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Articles of Agreement, Article IV, Section 10, cited in Lancaster, 'Governance and Development', p 12.
12. World Bank, Annual Report, 1994, p 76.
13. Key World Bank documents detailing the development of its thinking in this area are particularly Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, Washington, DC, 1989; and Governance and Development.
14. Key World Bank documents detailing the development of its thinking in this area are particularly Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, Washington, DC, 1989; and Governance and Development.
15. This area includes public expenditure management and reform of civil service and public enterprise. World Bank, Annual Report, p 76.
16. Ibid.
17. David Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented at the 1995 Development Studies Association Annual Conference, Dublin. See also D Williams & Tom Young 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory, Political Studies, Vol XLII, 1994.
18. David Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', draft paper presented at the 1995 Development Studies Association Annual Conference, Dublin. See also D Williams & Tom Young 'Governance, the World Bank and liberal theory, Political Studies, Vol XLII, 1994.
19. A similar conceptualisation is advanced by Claus Offe in his essay 'Legitimacy versus efficiency', in which he refers to a set of 'selective principles' that regulate political authority and also carry the burden of legitimating it, thereby constituting 'the binding directions for the rulers and the ruled'. C Offe, in J Keane, ed, Contradictions of the Welfare State, London: Hutchinson, 1984, pp 134-135.
20. Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', p 609.
21. Williams, 1995, 'Governance and the discipline of development'.
22. Christopher Clapham 'The developmental state: governance, comparison and culture in the Third World', paper presented to ECPR Joint Sessions, Bordeaux, 1995, p 4.
23. Bimal Jalan, ed, The Indian Economy: Problems and Prospects, New Delhi: Penguin India, 1992, p 165.
24. Compare with the examples from Pacific Asia advanced in Mark Thompson 'Late industrialisers, late democratisers: developmental states in Pacific Asia', paper presented to ECPR Joint Sessions, Bordeaux, 1995.
25. Refer to World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa.
26. Leftwich, 'Governance, democracy and development in the Third World', p 609.
27. Lancaster, 'Governance and development', p 10.
28. Thompson, 'Late industrialisers, late democratisers', p 12.
29. This issue is discussed further in Bob Currie 'From partition to peonage?: a study of debt and economic adjustment in India', currently available as a Dept of Politics Working Paper, University of Huddersfield, 1995. See also G White, ed, Developmental States in East Asia, London: Macmillan, 1988; F Deyo, The Political Economy of New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987; and R Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialisation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
30. This issue is discussed further in Bob Currie 'From partition to peonage?: a study of debt and economic adjustment in India', currently available as a Dept of Politics Working Paper, University of Huddersfield, 1995. See also G White, ed, Developmental States in East Asia, London: Macmillan, 1988; F Deyo, The Political Economy of New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987; and R Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialisation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
31. This issue is discussed further in Bob Currie 'From partition to peonage?: a study of debt and economic adjustment in India', currently available as a Dept of Politics Working Paper, University of Huddersfield, 1995. See also G White, ed, Developmental States in East Asia, London: Macmillan, 1988; F Deyo, The Political Economy of New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987; and R Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialisation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
32. This issue is discussed further in Bob Currie 'From partition to peonage?: a study of debt and economic adjustment in India', currently available as a Dept of Politics Working Paper, University of Huddersfield, 1995. See also G White, ed, Developmental States in East Asia, London: Macmillan, 1988; F Deyo, The Political Economy of New Asian Industrialism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987; and R Wade, Governing the Market: Economic Theory and the Role of Government in East Asian Industrialisation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990.
33. George Philip, 'The new economic liberalism and democracy in Latin America', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993, p. 566.
34. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, London: Penguin, 1966, ch 7; and Ronald Inden, Imagining India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
35. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, London: Penguin, 1966, ch 7; and Ronald Inden, Imagining India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
36. James Manor 'How and why liberal and democratic politics emerged in India', Political Studies, Vol XXXVIII, 1990.
37. Judith Brown, Modern India: the Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; and Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Delhi: Macmillan, 1983.
38. Judith Brown, Modern India: the Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; and Sumit Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947, Delhi: Macmillan, 1983.
39. Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ed, The Penguin Gandhi Reader, London: Penguin, 1993; Bhikhu Parekh, Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination, London: Macmillan, 1989; and Ashis Nandy, 'From outside the Imperium: Gandhi's cultural critique of the West', in Nandy, Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of Awareness, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992.
40. Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ed, The Penguin Gandhi Reader, London: Penguin, 1993; Bhikhu Parekh, Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination, London: Macmillan, 1989; and Ashis Nandy, 'From outside the Imperium: Gandhi's cultural critique of the West', in Nandy, Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of Awareness, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992.
41. Rudrangshu Mukherjee, ed, The Penguin Gandhi Reader, London: Penguin, 1993; Bhikhu Parekh, Gandhi's Political Philosophy: A Critical Examination, London: Macmillan, 1989; and Ashis Nandy, 'From outside the Imperium: Gandhi's cultural critique of the West', in Nandy, Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias: Essays in the Politics of Awareness, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1992.
42. For example the INC attempted to attract broad-based support through its satyagraha against Rowlatt (Sedition) Bills in 1919; to consolidate Congress-Muslim League cooperation through the 1916 Lucknow Pact and its support for the Khalifat movement; to strengthen lower caste and lower class support through the Anti-Brahmin movements in South India; and to extend its general appeal through the Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920-22, the swadeshi campaign (boycott of British goods), opposition to the Salt Tax and other Gandhian strategies. See Hugh Owen, The Indian Nationalist Movement, c 1912-22: Leadership, Organisation and Philosophy, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1989; Brown, Modern India; and Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947.
43. For example the INC attempted to attract broad-based support through its satyagraha against Rowlatt (Sedition) Bills in 1919; to consolidate Congress-Muslim League cooperation through the 1916 Lucknow Pact and its support for the Khalifat movement; to strengthen lower caste and lower class support through the Anti-Brahmin movements in South India; and to extend its general appeal through the Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920-22, the swadeshi campaign (boycott of British goods), opposition to the Salt Tax and other Gandhian strategies. See Hugh Owen, The Indian Nationalist Movement, c 1912-22: Leadership, Organisation and Philosophy, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1989; Brown, Modern India; and Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947.
44. For example the INC attempted to attract broad-based support through its satyagraha against Rowlatt (Sedition) Bills in 1919; to consolidate Congress-Muslim League cooperation through the 1916 Lucknow Pact and its support for the Khalifat movement; to strengthen lower caste and lower class support through the Anti-Brahmin movements in South India; and to extend its general appeal through the Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920-22, the swadeshi campaign (boycott of British goods), opposition to the Salt Tax and other Gandhian strategies. See Hugh Owen, The Indian Nationalist Movement, c 1912-22: Leadership, Organisation and Philosophy, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1989; Brown, Modern India; and Sarkar, Modern India 1885-1947.
45. David Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation', Review of African Political Economy, Vol 60, 1994, p 169.
46. See further in Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; Atul Kohli, ed, India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations, Princelon, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Francine Frankel & MSA Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990; Subrata Mitra, ed, The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; and Jyoti Das Gupta, 'India: democratic becoming and combined development' in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989.
47. See further in Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; Atul Kohli, ed, India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations, Princelon, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Francine Frankel & MSA Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990; Subrata Mitra, ed, The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; and Jyoti Das Gupta, 'India: democratic becoming and combined development' in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989.
48. See further in Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; Atul Kohli, ed, India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations, Princelon, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Francine Frankel & MSA Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990; Subrata Mitra, ed, The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; and Jyoti Das Gupta, 'India: democratic becoming and combined development' in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989.
49. See further in Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; Atul Kohli, ed, India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations, Princelon, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Francine Frankel & MSA Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990; Subrata Mitra, ed, The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; and Jyoti Das Gupta, 'India: democratic becoming and combined development' in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989.
50. See further in Atul Kohli, Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991; Atul Kohli, ed, India's Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society Relations, Princelon, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Francine Frankel & MSA Rao, eds, Dominance and State Power in Modern India: Decline of a Social Order, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990; Subrata Mitra, ed, The Post-Colonial State in Asia: Dialectics of Politics and Culture, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991; and Jyoti Das Gupta, 'India: democratic becoming and combined development' in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset, Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989.
51. For comparison in the African context refer to Christopher Clapham, 'Democratisation in Africa: obstacles and prospects, Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993.
52. Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation', p 169.
53. India maintained special trading links with the USSR under the Rupee-Rouble agreement and barter arrangements until the late 1980s. However, despite this, the USA has been India's major trading partner for several decades.
54. V Dandekar, 'Indian economy since independence', Economic and Political Weekly, Nos 2, 9, February 1988. See also Claude Bettleheim, India Independent, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968; Pranab Bardhan, The Political-Economy of Development in India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984; and Baldev Rev Nayar, 'India's mixed economy: the role of ideology and interest in its development', Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1989.
55. V Dandekar, 'Indian economy since independence', Economic and Political Weekly, Nos 2, 9, February 1988. See also Claude Bettleheim, India Independent, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968; Pranab Bardhan, The Political-Economy of Development in India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984; and Baldev Rev Nayar, 'India's mixed economy: the role of ideology and interest in its development', Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1989.
56. V Dandekar, 'Indian economy since independence', Economic and Political Weekly, Nos 2, 9, February 1988. See also Claude Bettleheim, India Independent, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968; Pranab Bardhan, The Political-Economy of Development in India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984; and Baldev Rev Nayar, 'India's mixed economy: the role of ideology and interest in its development', Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1989.
57. V Dandekar, 'Indian economy since independence', Economic and Political Weekly, Nos 2, 9, February 1988. See also Claude Bettleheim, India Independent, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1968; Pranab Bardhan, The Political-Economy of Development in India, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984; and Baldev Rev Nayar, 'India's mixed economy: the role of ideology and interest in its development', Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1989.
58. Indeed a number of Indian industrialists clearly recognised before independence the advantages of selective state interventions in key sectors of the economy, particularly to provide infrastructure, raw materials and other key inputs required by the private sector. This point was made explicit in the National Planning Committee of 1935, chaired by Jawaharlal Nehnu, and in the 1945 Bombay Plan, which laid down plans for economic strategy after independence. A useful treatment is provided in Bipan Chandra, 'The colonial legacy', in Jalan, The Indian Economy.
59. Sudipto Kaviraj, 'On state, society and discourse in India', in James Manor, ed, Rethinking Third World Politics, London: Longman, 1991, p 87.
60. Rakesh Mohan, 'Industrial policy and controls' in Jalan, The Indian Economy, p 36.
61. The Constitution of India, 6th edn, Madras: Swamy, 1986.
62. C T Kurien, 'Limits to liberalisation: have we reached them already?', Frontline, 5 December 1993, p 99; and M R Bhagavan, 'Technological implications of structural adjustment', Economic & Political Weekly (EPW), 18-25 February 1995.
63. C T Kurien, 'Limits to liberalisation: have we reached them already?', Frontline, 5 December 1993, p 99; and M R Bhagavan, 'Technological implications of structural adjustment', Economic & Political Weekly (EPW), 18-25 February 1995.
64. World Bank, World Debt Tables, 1993-94, Washington, DC: World Bank.
65. Atul Kohli, 'Politics of economic liberalisation in India', World Development, Vol 17, 1989, p 308.
66. J Harriss, The state in retreat: why has India experienced such half-hearted liberalisation in the 1980s?'; and J Manor, 'Tried, then abandoned: economic liberalisation in India', both in IDS Bulletin, Vol 18, No 4, 1987; Kohli, 'Politics of economic liberalisation in India'.
67. J Harriss, The state in retreat: why has India experienced such half-hearted liberalisation in the 1980s?'; and J Manor, 'Tried, then abandoned: economic liberalisation in India', both in IDS Bulletin, Vol 18, No 4, 1987; Kohli, 'Politics of economic liberalisation in India'.
68. J Harriss, The state in retreat: why has India experienced such half-hearted liberalisation in the 1980s?'; and J Manor, 'Tried, then abandoned: economic liberalisation in India', both in IDS Bulletin, Vol 18, No 4, 1987; Kohli, 'Politics of economic liberalisation in India'.
69. World Bank, World Debt Tables, 1993-94.
70. This is done more fully in Currie, 'From partition to peonage'. Refer also to Vijay Joshi and I M D Little, India's Economic Reforms, 1991-2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996; and Amit Bhauduri & Deepak Nayyar, The Intelligent Person's Guide to Liberalization, New Delhi: Penguin, 1996.
71. This is done more fully in Currie, 'From partition to peonage'. Refer also to Vijay Joshi and I M D Little, India's Economic Reforms, 1991-2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996; and Amit Bhauduri & Deepak Nayyar, The Intelligent Person's Guide to Liberalization, New Delhi: Penguin, 1996.
72. A total 67 tons of gold was temporarily transferred to the UK and Switzerland as security for these loans.
73. K Basu 'Structural reforms in India, 1991-93: experience and agenda', EPW, 27 November 1993, p 2600.
74. While widespread publicity has been directed to the introduction of the United Front government's Common Minimum Programme, designed to promote infrastructural development, poverty alleviation and employment creation alongside efforts to control the fiscal deficit, the content of Finance Minister P Chidambaram's first budget in July 1996 appears to indicate initial continuity with the major economic policies of the preceding government, rather than a substantial shift in direction. Major policy statements in this regard are detailed in Government of India, Economic Survey, 1995-96: An Update, New Delhi: Ministry of Finance Economic Division, 1996; and Government of India, The Budget, 1996-97, New Delhi: Bharat Law House, 1996.
75. While widespread publicity has been directed to the introduction of the United Front government's Common Minimum Programme, designed to promote infrastructural development, poverty alleviation and employment creation alongside efforts to control the fiscal deficit, the content of Finance Minister P Chidambaram's first budget in July 1996 appears to indicate initial continuity with the major economic policies of the preceding government, rather than a substantial shift in direction. Major policy statements in this regard are detailed in Government of India, Economic Survey, 1995-96: An Update, New Delhi: Ministry of Finance Economic Division, 1996; and Government of India, The Budget, 1996-97, New Delhi: Bharat Law House, 1996.
76. Government of India, Economic Survey 1995-96, p 1.
77. Ibid, pp 100-101.
78. World Bank, Country Economic Memorandum: India, World Bank, Washington, DC. See analysis in M Govinda Ram, R T Shand & K P Kalirajan, 'World Bank on Fiscal Adjustment in India', EPW, 16 September 1995, pp 2317-2322.
79. World Bank, Country Economic Memorandum: India, World Bank, Washington, DC. See analysis in M Govinda Ram, R T Shand & K P Kalirajan, 'World Bank on Fiscal Adjustment in India', EPW, 16 September 1995, pp 2317-2322.
80. Reserve Bank of India, Annual Report 1994-95, Bombay: RBI, p 93. For further analysis and supporting data refer particularly to EPW Research Foundation, 'Economic reform and rate of saving', EPW, 6-13 May 1995.
81. Reserve Bank of India, Annual Report 1994-95, Bombay: RBI, p 93. For further analysis and supporting data refer particularly to EPW Research Foundation, 'Economic reform and rate of saving', EPW, 6-13 May 1995.
82. FDI during the first nine months of 1995 totalled a mere $756 million, compared with $3.1 billion in portfolio investment. Frontline (Madras), 25 March 1995. See further in Currie, 'From partition to peonage'.
83. 'Behind the Stock Market', EPW, editorial, 20-27 April 1996, pp 979-980.
84. Frontline (Madras) 21 April 1995; EPW, editorial, 6-13 May 1995.
85. Beetham, 'Conditions for democratic consolidation', p 165.
86. Prabat Patnaik & C P Chandrasekhar, 'Indian economy under 'Structural Adjustment', EPW, 25 November 1995.
87. Panchayati raj represents a three-tier system of decentralised localised self-government, initially implemented with limited success in 1959. A number of subsequent attempts has been made to implement this system more fully after the failure of this initial project. It was reintroduced by Rajiv Gandhi's government in 1989, although there is considerable variation between states in the degree to which panchayat governments are currently in operation.
88. However, various groups, including the Delhi-based People's Union for Democratic Rights (PUDR) have drawn attention to government violations of civil rights. Criticisms have focused particularly on excessive use of the Terrorism and Disruptive Practices Act (TADA) and other procedures to contain public rights to organise and protest.
89. Bob Currie, 'Laws for the rich and flaws for the poor? Legal action and food insecurity in the Kalahandi case', forthcoming in H O'Neill & J Toye, eds, A World without Famine, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996.
90. Bob Currie, 'Food crisis, administrative response and public action: some general implications from the Kalahandi issue', unpublished PhD thesis, Dept of Politics, University of Hull, 1993.
91. Williams, 'Governance and the discipline of development', p 5.
92. Mick Moore, 'Declining to learn from the East? The World Bank on "Governance and Development"', IDS Bulletin, Vol 24, No 3, 1993, p 42.
93. Currie, 'Food crisis, administrative response and public action'.
94. Allegations were made on Swedish radio on 15 April 1987 that four payments, totalling Rs 66 million (US$5 million) had been paid into the Swiss bank account of an Indian intermediary as part of a government contract for purchases of howitzers from the Swedish company Bofors. The Indian government denied there was a go-between or that any such payments had been made. India Today, May 1987.
95. In October 1986, Finance Minister V P Singh announced that he had commissioned US private investigators Fairfax to investigate allegations of financial impropriety against persons with close connections to Rajiv Gandhi. This notably included Congress (I) MP Amitabh Buchchan and leading industrialist Dhirubhai Ambani of Reliance Industries. India Today, May 1987.
96. On 7 April 1987, V P Singh announced that he had commissioned an inquiry into illegal payments made in connection with the purchase of two submarines from the German company HDW. Rajiv Gandhi was accused in 1989 of obstructing the Public Accounts Committee inquiry into this case.
97. S Muralidharan, 'An epic of corruption: and Manmohan Singh's "slumber"', Frontline (Madras), 16 July 1993, p 16.
98. For further details refer to Currie 1993, 'Food crisis, administrative response and public action'.
99. L C Gupta, 'Challenges before Securities and Exchange Board of India', EPW, 23 March 1996, p 751-752.
100. N A Mujumdar, 'Financial sector reforms: an exercise in introspection', EPW, 23 March 1996; and editorial in same issue.
101. However, a decision to conduct an annual inspection of foreign banks, public sector banks and weak private sector banks has been approved hv the Board for Financial Supervision. RBI, Annual Report, 1994-95, p 98.
102. Over the longer 1991-95 period, funding for this sector totalled US$382.3 million to Africa; $690.1 million to East Asia and the Pacific; $821.1 million to Europe and Central Asia; $2632.7 million to Latin America and the Caribbean; $28.9 million to the Middle East and North Africa; and $296.8 million to South Asia. All South Asia's funding came during 1994, the only year in which any country in the subcontinent has receiving funding in this area during the last decade. World Bank, Annual Report, 1995, Washington, DC: World Bank.
103. John Wood, 'India's Narmada river dams: Sarvar Sarovar under siege', Asian Survey, Vol XXXIII, No 10, 1993;
104. Jashbai Patel 'Is national interest being served by the Narmada Project?', EPW, 23 July 1994.
105. Pratab Chatterjee 'Asian Development Bank ready to lend, but not for Narmada Dam', article sent to India Alert-Madison Electronic Mailing List (india-alert@cs.wisc.edu), 26 March 1996.
106. S Muralidharan 'Unfair practices, Super 301 and the Indian response', Frontline (Madras), 4 June 1993, p 102.
107. Executive Office of the President, United States Trade Representative, 'USTR announces Two Decisions: Title VII and Special 301', Press Release, 29 April 1995.
108. International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook, 1995, Washington, DC: and personal calculations.
109. For further details refer to D Nachane 'Intellectual property rights in the Uruguay Round: an Indian perspective', EPW, 4 February 1995; N K Chowdhry & J C Aggarwal, Dunkel Proposals: Implications for India and the Third World, Delhi: Shipra Publications, 1993; Suman Sahai, 'Indian Patent Act and TRIPS', EPW, 17-24 July 1993,
110. For further details refer to D Nachane 'Intellectual property rights in the Uruguay Round: an Indian perspective', EPW, 4 February 1995; N K Chowdhry & J C Aggarwal, Dunkel Proposals: Implications for India and the Third World, Delhi: Shipra Publications, 1993; Suman Sahai, 'Indian Patent Act and TRIPS', EPW, 17-24 July 1993,
111. For further details refer to D Nachane 'Intellectual property rights in the Uruguay Round: an Indian perspective', EPW, 4 February 1995; N K Chowdhry & J C Aggarwal, Dunkel Proposals: Implications for India and the Third World, Delhi: Shipra Publications, 1993; Suman Sahai, 'Indian Patent Act and TRIPS', EPW, 17-24 July 1993,
112. Amiya Baychi & Uttam Bhattacharya, 'Indian patents as competitive instruments: dream and reality', EPW, 24 June 1995.
113. World Bank, Annual Report 1995, p 75.
114. Government of India, Economic Survey, 1995-96: An Update, p 15.
115. Thompson, 'Late industrialisers, late democratisers'.
116. Bob Currie, 'Food crisis and prevention: an analysis in the Indian context', Contemporary South Asia, Vol 1, No 1, 1992, figure 1, p 105.
117. US exports to China during 1994 totalled US$9287 million, compared with $2811 million to India. Further, the USA imported $41 362 million worth of goods and commodities from China during 1994, compared with only $5663 million from India. IMF, Direction of Trade Statistics, pp 436-437.