Insulin in obstetrics: A main parameter in the management of pregnancy

Human Reproduction Update

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 904-914

  Ciampelli, Mario ^a   Lanzone, Antonio ^b   Caruso, Alessandro ^a  

^a CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

^b OASI RESEARCH INSTITUTE IRCCS   (Italy)

Author keywords

Diabetes; Fetal growth; Hypertension; Insulin; Pregnancy

Indexed keywords

GLUCOSE; INSULIN;

ARTICLE; FEMALE; FETUS GROWTH; GESTATIONAL AGE; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; HUMAN; HYPERINSULINEMIA; INSULIN METABOLISM; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; OVARY POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; PREECLAMPSIA; PREGNANCY DIABETES MELLITUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

DIABETES, GESTATIONAL; EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS, CARDIOVASCULAR;

EID: 0032454901     PISSN: 13554786     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/humupd/4.6.904     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Abrams, B. and Selvin, S. (1995) Maternal weight gain pattern and birth weight. Obstet. Gynecol., 86, 163-169.
2. Agardh, C.D., Aberg, A. and Norden, N.E. (1996) Glucose levels and insulin secretion during a 75g glucose challenge test in normal pregnancy. J. Intern. Med., 240, 303-309.
3. Agino, H., Shishii, K., Yokono, K. et al. (1994) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay methods for human autophosphorylated insulin receptor: applicability to insulin resistant states. Diabetes, 43, 274-280.
4. Andersen, O. (1990) Insulin receptor binding and glucose metabolism in normal human pregnancy and gestational diabetes mellitus. Dan. Med. Bull., 37, 492-501.
5. Andersen, O. and Kuhl, C. (1987) Insulin receptor binding to monocytes and erythrocytes in gestational diabetes. Diabète Metab., 13, 607-612.
6. Andersen, O. and Kuhl, C. (1988) Adipocyte insulin receptor binding and lipogenesis at term in normal pregnancy. Eur. J. Clin. Invest., 18, 575-581.
7. Baker, J., Liu, J.P., Robertson, E.J. et al. (1993) Role of insulin-like growth factors in embryonic and postnatal growth. Cell, 75, 73-82.
8. Bartha, J.L. and Comino-Delgado, R. (1997) Carbohydrate metabolism. Evaluation in women with de novo hypertension in late pregnancy. J. Reprod. Med., 42, 489-496.
9. Bauman, W.A., Maimen, M. and Langer, D. (1988) An association between hyperinsulinemia and hypertension during the third trimester of pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 159, 446-450.
10. Beck-Nielsen, H., Kuhl, C., Pedersen, O. et al. (1979) Decreased insulin binding to monocytes from normal pregnant women. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 49, 810-814.
11. Bellman, O. and Hartman, E. (1975) Influence of pregnancy on the kinetics of insulin. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 122, 829-833.
12. Bergman, R.N., Finegood, D.T. and Ader, M. (1985) Assessment of insulin sensitivity in vivo. Endocr. Rev., 6, 45-75.
13. Bernstein, I.M., Goran, M.I. and Copeland, K.C. (1997) Maternal insulin sensitivity and cord blood peptides: relationships to neonatal size at birth. Obstet. Gynecol., 90, 780-783.
14. Bevier, W., Jovanovic-Peterson, L. and Peterson, C. (1995) Endocrine disorders of pregnancy: pancreatic disorders of pregnancy. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North. Am., 24, 103-138.
15. Bleicher, S., O'Sullivan, J. and Freinkel, N. (1964) Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med., 271, 866-872.
16. Bolinder, J., Engfeldt, P., Ostmen, J. et al. (1983) Site differences in insulin receptor binding and insulin action in subcutaneous fat of obese females. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 57, 455-461.
17. Boron, W.F. (1986) Intracellular pH regulation in epithelial cells. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 48, 377-378.
18. Bowes, S.B., Hennesy, T.R., Umpleby, A.M. et al. (1996) Measurement of glucose metabolism and insulin secretion during normal pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by gestational diabetes. Diabetologia, 39, 976-983.
19. Breschi, M.C., Seghieri, G., Bartolomei, G. et al. (1993) Relation of birthweight to maternal plasma glucose and insulin concentrations during normal pregnancy. Diabetologia, 36, 1315-1321.
20. Bruce, C., Bumby, J., Mangnall, D. et al. (1992) Evidence that the insulin resistance of pregnancy may not involve a post-receptor defect in human adipocytes. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 16, 75-84.
21. Buchanan, T. and Catalano, P. (1995) The pathogenesis of GDM: implication for diabetes after pregnancy. Diabetes Rev., 3, 584-601.
22. Buchanan, T.A., Metzger, B.E., Freinkel, N. et al. (1990) Insulin sensitivity and β-cell responsiveness to glucose during late pregnancy in lean and moderately obese women with normal glucose tolerance or mild gestational diabetes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 162, 1008-1014.
23. Burke, C.W. and Roulet, F. (1970) Increased exposures of tissues to cortisol in late pregnancy. Br. Med. J., 1, 657-661.
24. Camps, M., Guma, A., Testar, X. et al. (1990) Insulin resistance of skeletal muscle during pregnancy is not a consequence of intrinsic modifications of insulin receptor binding or kinase activities. Endocrinology, 127, 2561-2570.
25. Caruso, A., Di Simone, N., Ronsisvalle, E. et al. (1994) Insulin secretion in patients with gestational diabetes: relationship with pregnancy outcome. Harm. Res., 41, 205-208.
26. Caruso, A., Caforio, L., Ferrazzani, S. et al. (1998a) Insulin secretory patterns and uteroplacental Doppler flow velocimetry in pregnancies complicated by carbohydrate intolerance: is there any relationship? Hypertens. Pregnancy, 17, 179-190.
27. Caruso, A., Paradisi, G., Ferrazzani, S. et al. (1998b) Effect of maternal carbohydrate metabolism on normal and restricted fetal growth. Obstet. Gynecol., 92, 8-12.
28. Catalano, P.M. (1994) Carbohydrate metabolism and gestational diabetes. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol., 37, 25-38.
29. Catalano, P.M., Tyzbir, E.D., Roman, N.M. et al. (1991) Longitudinal changes in insulin release and insulin resistance in non obese pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 165, 1667-1672.
30. Catalano, P.M., Tyzbir, E.D., Wolfe, R.R. et al. (1992) Longitudinal changes in basal hepatic glucose production and suppression during insulin infusion in normal pregnant women. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 167, 913-919.
31. Catalano, P.M., Tyzbir, E.D., Wolfe, R.R. et al. (1993) Carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy in control subjects and women with gestational diabetes. Am. J. Physiol., 264, E60-E67.
32. Catalano, P.M., Drago, N.M. and Amini, S.B. (1995) Maternal carbohydrate metabolism and its relationship to fetal growth and body composition. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172, 1464-1470.
33. Cheney, C., Shragg, P. and Hollingsworth, D. (1985) Demonstration of heterogeneity in gestational diabetes by a 400-Kcal breakfast meal tolerance test. Obstet. Gynecol., 65, 17-23.
34. Ciampelli, M. and Lanzone, A. (1998) Insulin and polycystic ovary syndrome: a new look at an old subject. Gynecol. Endocrinol., 12, 277-292.
35. Ciaraldi, T.P., Kettel, M., El-Roeiy, A. et al. (1994) Mechanisms of cellular insulin resistance in human pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 170, 635-641.
36. Cioffi, F.J., Vintzileos, A.M., Amorosa, L.F. et al. (1995) Association of insulin and glucose with blood pressure during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 172, 378 (SPO abstr.).
37. Cioffi, F.J., Amorosa, L.F., Vintzileos, A.M. et al. (1997) Relationship of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia to blood pressure during pregnancy. J. Maternal Fetal Med., 6, 174-179.
38. Clark, C.M., Qiu, C., Amerman, B. et al. (1997) Gestational diabetes: should it be added to the syndrome of insulin resistance? Diabetes Care, 20, 867-871.
39. Coates, P.A., Luzio, S.D., Brunel, P. et al. (1995) Comparison of estimates of insulin sensitivity from minimal model analysis of the insulin-modified frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test and the isoglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp in subjects with NIDDM. Diabetes, 44, 631-635.
40. Costrini, N.V. and Kalkhoff, R.K. (1971) Relative effects of pregnancy, estradiol, and progesterone on plasma insulin and pancreatic islet insulin secretion. J. Clin. Invest., 50, 992-997.
41. Cousins, L. (1991) Insulin sensitivity in pregnancy. Diabetes, 40 (Suppl. 2), 39-43.
42. Cousins, L., Rigg, L., Hollingsworth, D. et al. (1980) The 24-hour excursions and diurnal rhythm of glucose, insulin and c-peptide in normal pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 136, 483-488.
43. Coustan, D.R. and Felig, P. (1988) Diabetes mellitus. In Burrow, G.N. and Ferris, T.F. (eds), Medical Complications during Pregnancy. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp. 44-67.
44. Cruikshank, D.F. and Hays, P.M. (1986) Maternal physiology in pregnancy. In Gabbe, S.G. Nyebel, J.R. and Simpson, J.L. (eds), Obstetrics. Normal and Problem Pregnancies. Churchill Livingstone, New York, pp. 152-174.
45. Damm, P., Handberg, A., Kuhl, C. et al. (1993) Insulin receptor binding and tyrosine kinase activity in skeletal muscle from normal pregnant women and women with gestational diabetes. Obstet. Gynecol., 82, 251-259.
46. De Fronzo, R.A., Tobin, J.D. and Andres, R. (1979) Glucose clamp technique: a method for quantifying insulin secretion and resistance. Am. J. Physiol., 237, E214-E223.
47. Desoye, G., Hoffmann, H.H. and Weis, P.A.M. (1992) Insulin binding to trophoblast plasma membranes and placental glycogen content in well-controlled gestational diabetic women treated with diet or insulin, in well-controlled overt diabetic patients and in healthy control subjects. Diabetologia, 35, 45-55.
48. Di Iorio, R., Marinoni, E., Coacci, F. et al. (1997) Amniotic fluid nitric oxide and uteroplacental blood flow in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 104, 1134-1139.
49. Di Simone, N., Ronsisvalle, E., Fulghesu, A.M. et al. (1996) Insulin plasma levels in pregnant patients with impaired glucose tolerance: relationship with pregnancy outcome. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest., 42, 16-20.
50. Dominiczak, A.F. and Bohr, D.F. (1989) Vascular smooth muscle in hypertension. J. Hypertension, 7 (Suppl. 7), S107-S115.
51. Duran-Garcia, S., Nieto, J.C. and Cabello, A.M. (1979) Effects of gestational diabetes on insulin receptors in human placenta. Diabetologia, 16, 87-91.
52. Dwenger, A., Mitzkat, H.J., Holle, W. et al. (1982) Insulin binding to erythrocytes from pregnant, post-partum, follicular and luteal states. J. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem., 20, 273-279.
53. Ferranini, E., Buzzigoli, G., Bonadonna, R. et al. (1987) Insulin resistance in essential hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med., 317, 350-357.
54. Ferranini, E., Haffner, S.M., Mitchell, B.D. et al. (1991) Hyperinsulinemia: the key feature of a cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia, 34, 416-422.
55. Fisher, P.M., Sutherland, H.W. and Bewsher, P.D. (1980) The insulin response to glucose infusion in gestational diabetes. Diabetologia, 19, 10-14.
56. Fournier, A.M., Gadia, M.T., Kubrusly, D.B. et al. (1986) Blood pressure, insulin and glycemia in non-diabetic subjects. Am. J. Med., 80, 861-864.
57. Franks, S. (1995) Polycystic ovary syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med., 333, 853-861.
58. Fraser, R.B., Ford, F.A. and Milner, R.D.G. (1983) A controlled trial of a high dietary fibre intake in pregnancy - effects on plasma glucose and insulin levels. Diabetologia, 25, 238-241.
59. Fraser, R.B., Ford, FA. and Lawrence, G.F. (1988) Insulin sensitivity in third trimester pregnancy. A randomized study of dietary effects. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 95, 223-229.
60. Fuh, M.M. Yin, C.S., Pei, D. et al. (1995) Resistance to insulin mediated glucose uptake and hyperinsulinemia in women who had preeclampsia during pregnancy. Am. J. Hypertension, 8, 768-771.
61. Garvey, W.T., Maianu, L., Zhu, J.H. et al. (1993) Multiple defects in the adipocytes glucose transport system cause cellular insulin resistance in gestational diabetes. Heterogeneity in the number and a novel abnormality in subcellular localization of GLUT4 glucose transporter. Diabetes, 42, 1773-1785.
62. Giles, W., O'Callaghan, S., Boura, A. et al. (1992) Reduction in human fetal umbilical placental vascular resistance by glyceryl-trinitrate. Lancet, 340, 856.
63. Gluckamn, P.D. (1995) The endocrine regulation of fetal growth in late gestation: the role of insulin-like growth factors. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 80, 1047-1050.
64. Goldfine, I.D. (1987) The insulin receptor: molecular biology and transmembrane signaling. Endocr. Rev., 8, 235-255.
65. Graig, B.W., Garthwaite, S.M. and Holoszy, J.O. (1987) Adipocyte insulin resistance: effects of aging, obesity, exercise and food restriction. J. Appl. Physiol., 62, 95-100.
66. Gratacos, J.A., Neufeld, N., Kumar, D. et al. (1981) Monocyte insulin binding studies in normal and diabetic pregnancies. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 141, 611-616.
67. Hamasaki, T., Yasuhi, I., Hirai, M. et al. (1996) Hyperinsulinemia increases the risk of gestational hypertension. Int. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 55, 141-145.
68. Hersmeyer, R.K. (1987) Vascular muscle membrane cation mechanisms and total peripheral resistance. Hypertension, 10 (Suppl. 1), I20-I22.
69. Hjollund, E., Pedersen, O., Espersen, T. et al. (1986) Impaired insulin receptors binding and post-binding defects of adipocytes from normal and diabetic pregnant women. Diabetes, 35, 598-603.
70. Holte, J., Gennarelli, G., Berne, C. et al. (1996) Elevated ambulatory day-time blood pressure in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a sign of prehypertensive state? Hum. Reprod., 11, 23-28.
71. Holte, J., Gennarelli, G., Wide, L. et al. (1998) High prevalence of polycystic ovaries and associated clinical, endocrine, and metabolic features in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 83, 1143-1150.
72. Kaaja, R., Tikkanen, M., Viinikka, L. et al. (1995) Serum lipoproteins, insulin, and urinary prostanoid metabolites in normal and hypertensive pregnant women. Obstet. Gynecol., 85, 353-356.
73. Kahn, C.R. and White, M.F. (1988) The insulin receptor and the molecular mechanism of insulin action. J. Clin. Invest., 82, 1151-1156.
74. Kalkhoff, R.H., Kissebah, A.H. and Kim, H.J. (1979) Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism during normal pregnancy: relationship to gestational hormone action. In: Merkatz, I.R. and Adam, P.A. (eds), The Diabetic Pregnancy: a Perinatal Perspective. Grune & Stratton, New York, pp. 3-21.
75. Kalkhoff, R.K., Richardson, B.L. and Beck, P. (1969) Relative effects of pregnancy, human placental lactogen and prednisolone on carbohydrate tolerance in normal and subclinical diabetic subjects. Diabetes, 18, 153-163.
76. Kautzky-Willer, A., Prager, R., Waldhaus, W. et al. (1997) Pronounced insulin resistance and inadequate β-cell secretion characterize lean gestational diabetes during and after pregnancy. Diabetes Care, 20, 1717-1723.
77. Khouzami, V.A., Ginsburg, G.S., Daikoku, N.H. et al. (1981) The glucose tolerance test as a means of identifying intrauterine growth retardation. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 139, 423-426.
78. King, G.L., Goodman, D., Buzney, S. et al. (1985) Receptors and growth promoting effects of insulin and insulin-like growth factors on cells from bovine retinal capillaries and aorta. J. Clin. Invest., 75, 1028-1036.
79. Knoop, R.H., Montes, A., Childs, M. et al. (1981) Metabolic adjustments in normal and diabetic pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol., 24, 21-49.
80. Kuhl, C. (1991) Insulin secretion and insulin resistance in pregnancy and GDM: implications for diagnosis and management. Diabetes, 40 (Suppl. 2), 18-24.
81. Laivuori, H., Tikkanen, M.J. and Ylikorkala, O. (1996) Hyperinsulinemia 17 years after preeclamptic first pregnancy. J. Clin Endocrinol. Metab., 81, 2908-2911.
82. Landon, M.B., Osei, K., Platt, M. et al. (1994) The differential effects of body fat distribution on insulin and glucose metabolism during pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 171, 875-884.
83. Lanzone, A., Fulghesu, A.M., Andreani, C.L. et al. (1990) Insulin secretion in polycystic ovarian disease: effect of ovarian suppression by GnRH agonist. Hum. Reprod., 5, 143-149.
84. Lanzone, A., Caruso, A., Di Simone, N. et al. (1995) Polycystic ovary syndrome: a risk factor for gestational diabetes? J. Reprod. Med., 40, 312-316.
85. Lanzone, A., Fulghesu, A.M., Cucinelli, F. et al. (1996) Preconceptional and gestational evaluation of insulin secretion in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. Hum. Reprod., 11, 2107-2113.
86. Lassarre, C., Hardovin, S. Daffos, F. et al. (1991) Serum insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in the human fetus. Relationships with growth in normal subjects and in subjects with intrauterine growth retardation. Pediatr. Res., 29, 219-225.
87. Lever, A.F. (1986) Slow pressor mechanisms in hypertension. A role for hypertrophy of resistance vessels. J. Hypertension, 4, 515-524.
88. Martinez Abundis, E., Gonzalez Ortiz, M., Quinones Galvan, A. et al. (1996) Hyperinsulinemia in glucose-tolerant women with preeclampsia: a controlled study. Am. J. Hypertension, 9, 610-614.
89. Martinez, C., Ruiz, P., Andrès, A. et al. (1989) Tyrosine kinase activity of liver insulin receptor is inhibited in rats at term gestation. Biochem. J., 263, 267-272.
90. Mirlesse, V., Frankenne, F., Alsat, E. et al. (1993) Placental growth hormone levels in normal pregnancy and in pregnancies with intra-uterine growth retardation. Pediatr. Res., 34, 439-442.
91. Moore, P., Kolterman, O., Weyant, J. et al. (1981) Insulin binding in human pregnancy: comparison to the post-partum, luteal, and follicular states. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 52, 937-941.
92. Mukherjee, S.P. and Mukherjee, C. (1981) Metabolic activation of adipocytes by insulin accompanied by an early increase in intracellular pH. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 372, 347-351.
93. Neggers, Y., Goldenberg, R.L., Cliver, S.P. et al. (1995) The relationship between maternal and neonatal anthropometric measurements in term newborns. Obstet. Gynecol., 85, 192-196.
94. Neufeld, N., Braustein, G., Corbo, L.M. et al. (1984) Insulin receptors and placental proteins in normal and gestational diabetic pregnancies. Biol. Res. Pregnancy, 2, 84-89.
95. Oppenheimer, M.J., Sundquist, K. and Bierman, E.L. (1989) Downregulation of high density lipoprotein receptor in human fibroblasts by insulin and IGF-I. Diabetes, 38, 117-122.
96. O'Sullivan, J. and Mahan, K. (1964) Criteria for the oral glucose test in pregnancy. Diabetes, 13, 278-285.
97. Pacini, G. and Bergman, R.N. (1986). MINMOD: a computer program to calculate insulin sensitivity and pancreatic responsivity from the frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test. Computer Methods Programs Biomed., 23, 113-122.
98. Pagano, G., Cassader, M., Massobrio, M. et al. (1980) Insulin binding to human adipocytes during late pregnancy in healthy, obese and diabetic state. Horm. Metab. Res., 12, 177-181.
99. Paradisi, G., Fulghesu, A.M., Ferrazzani, S. et al. (1998) Endocrinometabolic features in women with polycystic ovary syndrome during pregnancy. Hum. Reprod., 13, 542-546.
100. Pedersen, O., Hjollund, E. and Lindkskov, H.O. (1982) Insulin binding and action on fat cells from young healthy females and males. Am. J. Physiol., 243, E158-E167.
101. Pedersen, O., Beck-Nielsen, H., Richelsen, B. et al. (1986) Increased insulin binding is not involved in the improved insulin effectiveness of gestational diabetes after hypoenergetic dieting. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 1, 323-326.
102. Persson, B., Edwall, L., Hanson, U. et al. (1997) Insulin sensitivity and insulin response in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Horm. Metab. Res., 29, 393-397.
103. Pfeifle, B. and Ditschuneit, H. (1981) Effect of insulin on the growth of cultured arterial smooth muscle cells. Diabetologia, 20, 155-158.
104. Piper, J.M., Field, N.T., Higby, K. et al. (1996) Maternal-fetal glucose metabolism and fetal growth retardation. Is there an association? J. Reprod. Med., 41, 761-766.
105. Pollare, T., Lithell, H. and Berne, C. (1990) Insulin resistance is a characteristic feature of primary hypertension independent of obesity. Metabolism, 39, 167-174.
106. Poretsky, L. and Kalin, M.F. (1987) The gonadotrophic function of insulin. Endocr. Rev., 8, 132-141.
107. Puavilai, G., Drobny, E.C., Domont, L.A. et al. (1982) Insulin receptors and insulin resistance in human pregnancy: evidence for a post-receptor defect in insulin action. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 54, 247-253.
108. Puttnam, R.W. (1985) Effect of insulin on intracellular pH in frog skeletal muscle fibers. Am. J. Physiol., 248, C330-C336.
109. Reaven, G.H. (1988) Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes, 37, 1595-1607.
110. Reece, E.A., Wiznitzer, A., Le, E. et al. (1994) The relation between human fetal growth and fetal blood levels of insulin-like growth factors I and II, their binding proteins, and receptors. Obstet. Gynecol., 84, 88-95.
111. Ryan, E.A. and Enns, L. (1988) Role of gestational hormones in the induction of insulin resistance. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 67, 341-347.
112. Ryan, E.A., O'Sullivan, M.J. and Skyler, J.S. (1985) Insulin action during pregnancy: studies with the euglycemic clamp technique. Diabetes, 34, 380-389.
113. Saad, M.J.A., Maeda, L., Brenelli, S.L. et al. (1997) Defects in insulin signal transduction in liver and muscle of pregnant rats. Diabetologia, 40, 179-186.
114. Skouby, S.O., Andersen, O., Saurberry, N. et al. (1987) Oral contraception and insulin sensitivity: in vivo assessment in normal women and women with previous gestational diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 64, 519-523.
115. Sokol, R.J., Kazzi, G.M., Kalhan, S.G. et al. (1982) Identifying the pregnancy at risk for intrauterine growth retardation: possible usefulness of the intravenous glucose tolerance test. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 143, 220-223.
116. Solomon, C.G., Graves, A.W., Greene, M.F. et al. (1994) Glucose intolerance as a predictor of hypertension in pregnancy. Hypertension, 23, 717-721.
117. Sowers, J.R., Jacobs, D.B., Simpson, L. et al. (1995a) Erythrocyte insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I receptor tyrosine kinase activity in hypertension in pregnancy. Metabolism, 44, 1308-1313.
118. Sowers, J.R., Saleh, A.A. and Sokol, R.J. (1995b) Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are associated with preeclampsia in African-Americans. Am. J. Hypertension, 88, 1-4.
119. Spellacy, W. and Goez, F. (1963) Plasma insulin in normal late pregnancy. N. Engl. J. Med., 268, 988-991.
120. Spellacy, W.N., Goetz, F.C., Greenberg, B.Z. et al. (1965a) Plasma insulin in normal mid-pregnancy. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 92, 11-15.
121. Spellacy, W.N., Goez, F.C., Greenberg, B.Z. et al. (1965b) Plasma insulin in normal 'early' pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol., 25, 862-865.
122. Steinberg, H.O., Brechtel, G., Johnson, A. et al. (1994) Insulin mediated skeletal muscle vasodilatation is nitric oxide dependent: a novel action of insulin to increase nitric oxide release. J. Clin. Invest., 94, 1172-1179.
123. Toyoda, N. (1982) Insulin receptors on erythrocytes in normal and obese pregnant women: comparisons to those in non pregnant women during the follicular and luteal phases. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 144, 679-682.
124. Tsibris, J.M., Raynor, L.O., Buhi, W.C. et al. (1980) Insulin receptors in circulating erythrocytes and monocytes from women on oral contraceptives or pregnant women near term. J. Endocrinol. Invest., 51, 711-717.
125. Valensise, H., Liu, Y.Y., Federici, M. et al. (1996) Increased expression of low-affinity insulin receptor isoform and insulin/insulin-like growth-factor-I hybrid receptors in term placenta from insulin resistant women with gestational hypertension. Diabetologia, 39, 952-960.
126. Van Assche, F.A. (1974) Quantitative morphologic and hystoenzymatic study of the endocrine pancreas in non pregnant and pregnant rats. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 118, 39-41.
127. Van Assche, F.A., Aerts, L. and De Prins, F. (1978) A morphologic study of the endocrine pancreas in human pregnancy. Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol., 85, 818-820.
128. Weidman, P., De Courten, M. and Bohlen, L. (1993) Insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and hypertension. J. Hypertension, 11 (Suppl. 5), S27-S38.
129. Whitsett, J. A. and Lessard, J.L. (1978) Characteristic of the microvillous brush border of human placenta: insulin receptor localization in brush border membranes. Endocrinology, 103, 1458-1468.
130. Whitson, R.H., Grimditch, G.K., Sternlicht, E. et al. (1988) Characterization of rat skeletal muscle sarcolemmal insulin receptors and a sarcolemmal insulin binding inhibitor. J. Biol. Chem., 263, 4789-4794.
131. Wolf, H.J. and Desoye, G. (1993) Immunohistochemical localization of glucose transporters and insulin receptors in human fetal membranes at term. Histochemistry, 100, 379-385.
132. Yen, S.S.C. (1973) Endocrine regulation of metabolic homeostasis during pregnancy. Clin. Obstet. Gynecol., 16, 130-147.
133. Yen, S.S.C., Tsai, C.C. and Vela, P. (1971) Gestational diabetogenesis: quantitative analysis of glucose-insulin relationship between normal pregnancy and pregnancy with gestational diabetes. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 111, 792-800.