Iran and the Caucasus

Middle East Policy

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 51-67

  Cornell, Svante E ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0032351838     PISSN: 10611924     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4967.1998.tb00369.x     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. For an overview of the competition between Turkey and Iran for influence in Central Asia and the Causasus, see Philip Robins, "Silent Competition: Iran and Turkey in Azerbaijan and Central Asia," Etniske Konflikter I Sentral-Asia of Kaukasus, Norwegian Institute for International Affairs, No. 172, (September 1993), pp. 111-123.
2. Although the Turkish population is mainly Sunni Muslin, it should be noted that over 20% of the Turks belong to the Alevi sect, which belongs mainly to Twelver Shii Islam, but is based on a syncretistic belief particular to Anatolia, and hence very different from Iranian Twelver Shiism.
3. For the history of Azerbaijan, and the contacts between the two parts of the Azeri nation, see Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan - A Borderland In Transition, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). See also by the same author, Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
4. For the history of Azerbaijan, and the contacts between the two parts of the Azeri nation, see Tadeusz Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan - A Borderland In Transition, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). See also by the same author, Russian Azerbaijan, 1905-1920: The Shaping of National Identity in a Muslim Community, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
5. For an overview of Turkey's policy in the Caucasus, see Suha Bolukbasi, "Ankara's Baku-Centered Transcaucasia Policy: Has it Failed?" Middle East Journal, (January 1997).
6. For an account of Turkey's policy towards the Nagorno Karabakh conflict, see Svante Cornell, "A Delicate Balance: Turkey and the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict," Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 34, No. 1, (January 1998), pp. 55-72.
7. For an early account of the outbreak of the conflict over Nagorno Karabakh, see Tamara Dragadze, "The Armenian-Azerbaijani Conflict: Structure and Sentiment," Third World Quarterly, No. 2, 1989; for a later overview of the nature of the conflict and its historical background, see Arie Vaserman and Rami Ginat, "National, Religious or Territorial Conflict? The Case of Nagorno Karabakh," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, No. 4, 1994. For the international attitudes to the conflict and its legal aspects, see Svante Cornell, "Undeclared War - the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict Reconsidered," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, (Summer 1997).
8. For an early account of the outbreak of the conflict over Nagorno Karabakh, see Tamara Dragadze, "The Armenian-Azerbaijani Conflict: Structure and Sentiment," Third World Quarterly, No. 2, 1989; for a later overview of the nature of the conflict and its historical background, see Arie Vaserman and Rami Ginat, "National, Religious or Territorial Conflict? The Case of Nagorno Karabakh," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, No. 4, 1994. For the international attitudes to the conflict and its legal aspects, see Svante Cornell, "Undeclared War - the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict Reconsidered," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, (Summer 1997).
9. For an early account of the outbreak of the conflict over Nagorno Karabakh, see Tamara Dragadze, "The Armenian-Azerbaijani Conflict: Structure and Sentiment," Third World Quarterly, No. 2, 1989; for a later overview of the nature of the conflict and its historical background, see Arie Vaserman and Rami Ginat, "National, Religious or Territorial Conflict? The Case of Nagorno Karabakh," Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, No. 4, 1994. For the international attitudes to the conflict and its legal aspects, see Svante Cornell, "Undeclared War - the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict Reconsidered," Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 4, (Summer 1997).
10. "Enclave Builds a Lifeline Out of Azerbaijan," International Herald Tribune, September 20, 1996.
11. On the Russo-Persian wars, see Muriel Atkin, Russia and Iran 1780-1828, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980).
12. Firuz Kazemzadeh, The Struggle for Transcaucasia, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951).
13. For an overview of the period, see Stephen Blank, "The Transcaucasian Federation and the Origins of the Soviet Union, 1921-22," Central Asian Survey, No. 4, (1990).
14. See Fred Halliday, "Condemned to React, Unable to Influence: Iran and Transcaucasia," Transcaucasian Boundaries, John F. Wright, Suzanne Goldenberg and Richard Schoefield, eds., (London: UCL Press, 1996), p. 75.
15. Swietochowski, Russia and Azerbaijan, pp. 20-24.
16. Halliday, pg. 75.
17. See Firozeh Nahavandi, "Russia, Iran and Azerbaijan: The Historic Origins of Iranian Foreign Policy," in Contested Borders in the Caucasus, Bruno Coppetiers, ed. (Brussels: VUB Press, 1996).
18. A good account of the Azerbaijan question in this era is Touraj Atabaki, Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and Autonomy in Twentieth-Century Iran, (British Academic Press, 1993).
19. This episode has been the subject of quite some academic attention. See, for example, Louise Fawcett, Iran and the Cold War: The Azerbaijan Crisis of 1945, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
20. Halliday, pp. 76-79.
21. See Nahavandi.
22. "Irredentist Campaign Among Azeris in Iran" OMRI (Open Media Research Institute, Prague) Daily Digest, ( September 3, 1996). The option of incorporating Northern Azerbaijan into Iran, although sympathetic to the Iranian rulers, is seen by some observers as being as dangerous for Iran as Azerian secessionism; the addition of six million Azeris would actually put the latter more at par demographically with Farsi-speakers in the Iranian population.
23. See Nahavandi, "Russia, Iran and Azerbaijan."
24. Halliday, p. 80.
25. For a discussion of ethnic mobilization, see, for example, Ted R. Gurr and Barbara Harff, Ethnic Conflict in World Politics, (Boulder & Oxford: Westview Press, 1994).
26. "Iran Demands Extradition," OMRI Daily Digest, (September 10, 1996).
27. For an overview of the problems of Iran, see Ahmed Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, (Adelphi Paper, No. 296, 1995).
28. Chris Kutschera, "Azerbaijan: The Kuwait of the Caucasus?" The Middle East, London, (March 1996).
29. Abdollah Ramezanzadeh, "Iran's Role as Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis," Contested Borders in the Caucasus, Bruno Coppetiers, ed. (Brussels: VUB Press, 1996).
30. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, (November 13, 1993).
31. Dilip Hiro, Between Marx and Muhammad - The Changing Face of Central Asia, (London: Harper-Collins, 1997), p. 293.
32. Takmil Homayun, "Negahi be Gharabagh Dar Masire Tarikhe Iran." Motaleaat Asiaye Markazi wa Ghafghaz, Vol. 2, No. 1, (Summer 1993). Quoted in Ramezanzadeh, "Iran's Role As Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis."
33. Takmil Homayun, "Negahi be Gharabagh Dar Masire Tarikhe Iran." Motaleaat Asiaye Markazi wa Ghafghaz, Vol. 2, No. 1, (Summer 1993). Quoted in Ramezanzadeh, "Iran's Role As Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis."
34. Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS), South Asia, (March 10, 1992).
35. Dilip Hiro, "The Azerbaijan Question." The Nation, (September 14, 1992).
36. Thomas Goltz, "Letter from Eurasia: The Hidden Russian Hand," Foreign Policy, No. 92, (Fall 1993).
37. Interestingly, certain Turkish observers claim that Turkey was involved in the coup. As Elçibey's fall from power was perceived as a great setback for Turkey in the entire Caucasus, such statements seem highly illogical. The argument, however, is that Turkey had realized Elçibey's inability to handle the government, and hence needed him removed as he was doing more harm than good. Such theories are naturally highly questionable and rather seem to be face-saving gestures over an obvious failure to keep an ally in power.
38. Tadeusz Swietochowski, "The Spirit of Baku," Central Asia Monitor, No. 4, (1993).
39. See Joseph A. Kechichian and Theodore W. Karasik, "The Crisis in Azerbaijan: How Clans Influence the Politics of an Emerging Republic," Middle East Policy, (Summer 1996), pp. 64-65.
40. "Iran Cuts Electricity to Nakhichevan" OMRI Daily Digest, (May 30, 1995).
41. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, (March 16, 1993).
42. Nazlan Ertan, "Baku-Ceyhan: Pipeline or Pipe Dream," Turkish Probe, (May 17, 1996), pp. 19-20.
43. "Iran Opts Out Of Shakh-Deniz," OMRI Daily Digest, (December 11, 1995).
44. "Iran Finally Agrees to Stake in Shah-Deniz," OMRI Daily Digest, (May 13, 1996).
45. OMRI Analytical Brief, (June 26, 1996).
46. Mehrdad Mohsenin, "Iran's Relations with Central Asia and the Caucasus," Iranian Journal of International Affairs, (Fall 1995).
47. For an overview of the issues of oil politics in the Caspian, see Elaine Holoboff, "Russia and Oil Politics in the Caspian," Jane's Intelligence Review, (February 1996). For a legal overview, see A. Oude Elferink, "Maritime Boundary Delimitations of the Russian Federation," Journal of Maritime and Coastal Law, No. 1, (1997), pp. 25-27.
48. For an overview of the issues of oil politics in the Caspian, see Elaine Holoboff, "Russia and Oil Politics in the Caspian," Jane's Intelligence Review, (February 1996). For a legal overview, see A. Oude Elferink, "Maritime Boundary Delimitations of the Russian Federation," Journal of Maritime and Coastal Law, No. 1, (1997), pp. 25-27.
49. For a legal opinion stressing this principle, see Bruce M. Clagett, "Ownership of Seabed and Subsoil Resources in the Caspian Sea under the Rule of International Law," Caspian Crossroads, (Summer/Fall 1995). See also "Talks in Tehran on Caspian," OMRI Daily Digest, (July 3, 1995).
50. For a legal opinion stressing this principle, see Bruce M. Clagett, "Ownership of Seabed and Subsoil Resources in the Caspian Sea under the Rule of International Law," Caspian Crossroads, (Summer/Fall 1995). See also "Talks in Tehran on Caspian," OMRI Daily Digest, (July 3, 1995).
51. "Iran, Russia, and Oil," OMRI Daily Digest, (June 1, 1995).
52. "Russia, Iran, and Oil," OMRI Daily Digest, (July 18, 1995).
53. "Russia, Iran to Draw Up New Legal Status for Caspian," OMRI Daily Digest, (October 24, 1995).
54. "See Edmund Herzig, Iran and the Former Soviet South (London: Royal Institute for International Affairs, London, 1995), pp. 28-44.
55. See Herzig, Iran and the Former Soviet South, p. 30.
56. For a discussion of the issue, see Charles H. Fairbanks, "The Postcommunist Wars," Journal of Democracy, October 1995.
57. See Ramezanzadeh, "Iran's Role as Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh Crisis."
58. See discussion in Halliday, "Condemned to React," pp.84-85.
59. See Ramezanzadeh, "Iran's Role as Mediator in the Nagorn-Karabakh Crisis."
60. See Halliday, pg. 84.
61. For an account of Armenian terrorism, see Michael M. Gunter, "The Armenian Terrorist Campaign Against Turkey," in Orbis, Summer 1983.
62. See Cornell, "Undeclared War."
63. See Svante E. Cornell, "The Unruly Caucasus," in Current History, Vol. 96, No. 612, October 1997.
64. See Svante E. Cornell, "Peace or War? The Prospects of Conflicts in the Caucasus," in Iranian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 9, No. 2, Summer 1997.
65. See discussion in Vaserman and Ginat, "National, Territorial, or Religious Conflict?"
66. See Halliday, "Condemned to React," Herzig, Iran and the Former Soviet South, pp. 29-30.
67. See Herzig, Iran and the Former Soviet South, p. 21.
68. "Armenia, Iran Sign Cooperation Agreements," OMRI Daily Digest (May 10, 1995).
69. "Iran Cuts Electricity to Nakhichevan," OMRI Daily Digest (May 30, 1995).
70. "Iran to Azerbaijan: No Ties to Israel," OMRI Daily Digest (August 10,1995).
71. For an account of Russia's intervention in the internal matters of CIS states, see Fiona Hill and Pamela Jewett, Back in the USSR - Russia's Intervention in the Internal Affairs of the Former Soviet Republics and the Implications for United States Policy toward Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University John F. Kennedy School of Government, January 1994).