Agile product development: Managing development flexibility in uncertain environments

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 1, 1998, Pages 8-30

  Thomke, Stefan ^a   Reinertsen, Donald ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032349267     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41165973     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
2. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
3. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
4. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
5. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
6. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
7. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
8. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
9. There are many research and managerial publications that focus on manufacturing flexibility. See, for example, S. Beckman, "Manufacturing Flexibility: The Next Source of Competitive Advantage," in P.E. Moody, ed., Strategic Manufacturing (Homewood, IL: Dow-Jones Irwin, 1990); M. Cusumano, "Shifting Economies: From Craft Production to Flexible Systems and Software Factories," Research Policy, 21/5 (October 1992): 453-480; X. De Groote, "The Flexibility of Production Processes: A General Framework," Management Science, 40/7 (July 1994): 933-945; R. Jaikumar, "From Filing and Fitting to Flexible Manufacturing: A Study in the Evolution of Process Control," Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 88-045, 1988; W. Jordan and S. Graves, "Principles on the Benefits of Manufacturing Process Flexibility," Management Science, 41/4 (April 1995): 577-594; K. Stecke, "Flexible Manufacturing Systems: Design and Operating Problems and Solutions," in W.K. Hodson, ed., Maynard's Industrial Engineering Handbook, 4th Edition (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1992); D. Upton, "Flexibility as Process Mobility: The Management of Plant Capabilities for Quick Response Manufacturing," Journal of Operations Management, 12 (1995); D. Upton, "Process Range in Manufacturing: An Empirical Study of Flexibility," Management Science, 43/8 (August 1997): 1079-1092; D. Upton, "The Management of Manufacturing Flexibility," California Management Review, 36/2 (Winter 1994): 72-89.
10. For example, see S. Wheelwright and K. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1992), p. 183; K. Eisenhardt and B. Tabrizi, "Accelerating Adaptive Processes: Product Innovation in the Global Computer Industry," Administrative Science Quarterly, 40/1 (March 1995): 84-110; M. Iansiti, "Shooting the Rapids: Managing Product Development in Turbulent Environments," California Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1995): 37-58; S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997): 105-119; M. Iansiti and A. MacCormack, "Developing Products on Internet Time," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 108-117.
11. For example, see S. Wheelwright and K. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1992), p. 183; K. Eisenhardt and B. Tabrizi, "Accelerating Adaptive Processes: Product Innovation in the Global Computer Industry," Administrative Science Quarterly, 40/1 (March 1995): 84-110; M. Iansiti, "Shooting the Rapids: Managing Product Development in Turbulent Environments," California Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1995): 37-58; S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997): 105-119; M. Iansiti and A. MacCormack, "Developing Products on Internet Time," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 108-117.
12. For example, see S. Wheelwright and K. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1992), p. 183; K. Eisenhardt and B. Tabrizi, "Accelerating Adaptive Processes: Product Innovation in the Global Computer Industry," Administrative Science Quarterly, 40/1 (March 1995): 84-110; M. Iansiti, "Shooting the Rapids: Managing Product Development in Turbulent Environments," California Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1995): 37-58; S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997): 105-119; M. Iansiti and A. MacCormack, "Developing Products on Internet Time," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 108-117.
13. For example, see S. Wheelwright and K. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1992), p. 183; K. Eisenhardt and B. Tabrizi, "Accelerating Adaptive Processes: Product Innovation in the Global Computer Industry," Administrative Science Quarterly, 40/1 (March 1995): 84-110; M. Iansiti, "Shooting the Rapids: Managing Product Development in Turbulent Environments," California Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1995): 37-58; S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997): 105-119; M. Iansiti and A. MacCormack, "Developing Products on Internet Time," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 108-117.
14. For example, see S. Wheelwright and K. Clark, Revolutionizing Product Development (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1992), p. 183; K. Eisenhardt and B. Tabrizi, "Accelerating Adaptive Processes: Product Innovation in the Global Computer Industry," Administrative Science Quarterly, 40/1 (March 1995): 84-110; M. Iansiti, "Shooting the Rapids: Managing Product Development in Turbulent Environments," California Management Review, 38/1 (Fall 1995): 37-58; S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997): 105-119; M. Iansiti and A. MacCormack, "Developing Products on Internet Time," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 108-117.
15. The technique for doing this is a simple financial sensitivity analysis, which is described in: P. Smith and D. Reinertsen, Developing Products in Half the Time: New Rules, New Tools (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1998); D. Reinertsen, Managing the Design Factory: A Product Developer's Toolkit (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1997), Chapter 2.
16. The technique for doing this is a simple financial sensitivity analysis, which is described in: P. Smith and D. Reinertsen, Developing Products in Half the Time: New Rules, New Tools (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1998); D. Reinertsen, Managing the Design Factory: A Product Developer's Toolkit (New York, NY: The Free Press, 1997), Chapter 2.
17. For evidence from software development, see, for example, B. Boehm, Software Engineering Economics (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981).
18. "An Embarrassment of Minivans," Business Week, March 11, 1996, pp. 30-31.
19. For example, see p. 69 in P. Smith and D. Reinertsen, Developing Products in Half the Time: New Rules, New Tools (New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1998).
20. This classic example of architectural flexibility appears in an article by D. Reinertsen ["Blitzkrieg Product Development: Cut Development Times in Half," Electronic Business, January 15, 1985], which advises that designers "stay flexible on unresolved issues. If you cannot resolve an issue, structure the design flexibly enough to go either way."
21. E. von Hippel, "Adapting Market Research to the Rapid Evolution of Needs for New Products and Service," Working Paper No. 3374-92-BPS, MIT Sloan School of Management, 1992.
22. T. Allen, "Studies of the Problem-Solving Process in Engineering Design," IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 2 (1966).
23. E. von Hippel, The Sources of Innovation (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1988).
24. See Iansiti, op. cit.; Iansiti and MacCormack, op. cit. They refer to the ability to delay decisions regarding a product's architecture as "the flexible approach" as opposed to their description of the traditional approach where a concept is frozen relatively early.
25. See Iansiti, op. cit.; Iansiti and MacCormack, op. cit. They refer to the ability to delay decisions regarding a product's architecture as "the flexible approach" as opposed to their description of the traditional approach where a concept is frozen relatively early.
26. B. Boehm, T. Gray, and T. Seewaldt, "Prototyping Versus Specifying: A Multiproject Experiment," IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 10/3 (May 1984): 290-303.
27. For example, see J. Kluge, L. Stein, E. Krubasik, I. Beyer, D. Düsedau and W. Huhn, Wachstum durch Verzicht (Stuttgart, Germany: Schäffer-Poeschel 1994).
28. The results of this 1994 study have been reported in more detail in S. Thomke, "The Role of Flexibility in the Development of New Products: An Empirical Study," Research Policy, 26/1 (March 1997).
29. The cost to build (and to modify) a prototype is commonly referred to as nonrecurring engineering (NRE) costs. As a general rule, NRE costs of ASICs can exceed $10,000 while the cost of a single EPLD varies but can fall under $100. Furthermore, it can sometimes take several weeks to get an ASIC prototype, while EPLD prototypes can be programmed in-house and are available within hours. A very well known EPLD technology are field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs).
30. Selected participants work either in system design or design and development engineering. They design a large variety of end products, ranging from communications systems to medical electronic equipment, and they are employed in companies all over the United States.
31. In order to control for complexity, the sample sizes had to be reduced to n=51 (EPLDs) and n=38 (ASICs). The statistical methods employed accounted for these differences.
32. As the measured variables can be influenced by design complexity and ASIC designs are on average more complex than EPLD designs, two subsamples were extracted and compared along several complexity measures. A comparison between EPLD and ASIC design projects that are in the two subsamples shows no significant difference for the first five measures. (Only the sixth variable showed a difference significant at 5% which would provide some weak support of higher EPLD complexity.) Thus it is reasonable to assume that projects from both subsamples are of similar complexity and that an objective comparison of project performance can be conducted. Results of the study were compared using these subsamples only.
33. For a detailed explanation, see S. Thomke, "Managing Experimentation in the Design of New Products," Management Science, 44/6 (June 1998).
34. For a description of this technology, see E. Sachs, et al., "CAD-Casting: Direct Fabrication of Ceramic Shells and Cores by Three Dimensional Printing," Manufacturing Review, 5/2 (June 1992).
35. For example, see M.T. Hannan and J. Freeman, "Structural Inertia and Organizational Change,American Sociological Review, 49 (1984); R. Henderson and K. Clark, "Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms," Administrative Science Quarterly, 35/1 (March 1990): 9-30; M. Tushman and P. Anderson, "Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environments," Administrative Science Quarterly, 31/3 (September 1986): 439-465.
36. For example, see M.T. Hannan and J. Freeman, "Structural Inertia and Organizational Change,American Sociological Review, 49 (1984); R. Henderson and K. Clark, "Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms," Administrative Science Quarterly, 35/1 (March 1990): 9-30; M. Tushman and P. Anderson, "Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environments," Administrative Science Quarterly, 31/3 (September 1986): 439-465.
37. For example, see M.T. Hannan and J. Freeman, "Structural Inertia and Organizational Change,American Sociological Review, 49 (1984); R. Henderson and K. Clark, "Architectural Innovation: The Reconfiguration of Existing Product Technologies and the Failure of Established Firms," Administrative Science Quarterly, 35/1 (March 1990): 9-30; M. Tushman and P. Anderson, "Technological Discontinuities and Organizational Environments," Administrative Science Quarterly, 31/3 (September 1986): 439-465.
38. For example, see Reinertsen and Smith, op. cit.; Wheelwright and Clark, op. cit.
39. For example, see Reinertsen and Smith, op. cit.; Wheelwright and Clark, op. cit.
40. E. von Hippel, "Task Partitioning: An Innovation Process Variable," Research Policy, 19/5 (October 1990): 407-418.
41. Ibid.
42. C. Alexander, Notes on the Synthesis of Form (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1964).
43. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
44. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
45. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
46. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
47. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
48. For example, see M. Meyer and J. Utterback, "The Product Family and the Dynamics of Core Capability," Sloan Management Review, 34/3 (Spring 1993): 29-47; K. Ulrich, "The Role of Product Architecture in the Manufacturing Firm," Research Policy, 24/3 (May 1995): 419-440; C. Baldwin and K. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, forthcoming 1999); C. Baldwin and K. Clark, "Managing in an Age of Modularity," Harvard Business Review, 75/5 (September/October 1997): 84-93 ; K. Ulrich and S. Eppinger, Product Design and Development (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1995); R. Sanchez and J. Mahoney, "Modularity, Flexibility, and Knowledge Management in Product and Organization Design," Strategic Management Journal, 17 (Winter 1996): 63-76.
49. This strategy is also discussed in E. von Hippel, "Economics of Product Development by Users: The Impact of 'Sticky' Local Information," Management Science, 44/5 (May 1998).