Representing Mechanical Arts in Diderot's Encyclopédie

Technology and Culture

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 33-73

  Pannabecker, John R ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032326446     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3107003     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Denis Diderot, "Prospectus," in Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, ed. Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert, vol. 1 (Paris, 1751; reprint, New York, 1969), p. x1. Diderot's "Prospectus" was first published in 1750 and republished as part of the "Discours préliminaire" (by Jean le Rond d'Alembert) introducing the Encyclopédie, vol. 1, pp. xxxiv-x1v. When I cite the "Prospectus" in this article the reference is to this republished version. Because all other articles in the Encyclopédie can be found in alphabetical order, volume and page numbers are omitted here. The Encyclopédie was published in twenty-eight volumes from 1751 to 1772, in Paris and Neufchâtel. References here are to the reprint edition published by Readex Microprint in 1969. (Readex published the original seventeen folio volumes of text in three folio volumes and the eleven volumes of plates in one folio volume.) Translations are mine unless otherwise noted. Quotations from individual articles and references to plates and their explanations are cited in the text; page references are to the first edition. The article "Encyclopédie" in volume 5 is not to be confused with the Encyclopédie itself. Like Diderot, in this article I will often use the term "the arts" to refer to the "mechanical arts."
2. In the next generation, Adam Smith drew on the description of pin making given in the Encyclopédie to illustrate the division of labor in his Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. See also W. F. Durfee, "The History and Modern Development of the Art of Interchangeable Construction in Mechanism," Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 14 (1893): 1236, 1241, 1243.
3. On Jefferson, see Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the "Encyclopédie," 1775-1800 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 318. On Blanchard, see Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 125, and Carolyn C. Cooper, Shaping Invention: Thomas Blanchard's Machinery and Patent Management in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1991), chap. 4.
4. On Jefferson, see Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the "Encyclopédie," 1775-1800 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 318. On Blanchard, see Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 125, and Carolyn C. Cooper, Shaping Invention: Thomas Blanchard's Machinery and Patent Management in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1991), chap. 4.
5. On Jefferson, see Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the "Encyclopédie," 1775-1800 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), p. 318. On Blanchard, see Merritt Roe Smith, Harpers Ferry Armory and the New Technology: The Challenge of Change (Ithaca, N.Y., 1977), p. 125, and Carolyn C. Cooper, Shaping Invention: Thomas Blanchard's Machinery and Patent Management in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1991), chap. 4.
6. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
7. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
8. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
9. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
10. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
11. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
12. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
13. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
14. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
15. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
16. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
17. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
18. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
19. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
20. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
21. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
22. e siècle (Paris, 1958); Paul Chauvet, Les ouvriers du livre en France des origines à la révolution de 1789 (Paris, 1959). See also F. G. Healey, "The Enlightenment View of 'homo faber'," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 25 (1963): 837-59; Jean-Claude Beaune, "Technology from an Encyclopedic Point of View," in The History and Philosophy of Technology, ed. George Bugliarello and Dean B. Doner (Urbana, Ill., 1979), pp. 202-26; Pierre Aubery, "The Image of Work and Workers in the Encyclopédie," Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century 263 (1989): 91-94; Georges Benrekassa, "Didactique encyclopédique et savoir philosophique: L'ensemble 'Epingle-Epinglier' dans l'Encyclopédie," in L'Encyclopédisme (Actes du Colloque de Caen, 12-16 January 1987), ed. Annie Becq (Paris, 1991), pp. 291-308. For comparative purposes, see Académie des Sciences, Descriptions des arts et métiers, 25 vols. (1761-89; reprint, Geneva, 1984).
23. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
24. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
25. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
26. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
27. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
28. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
29. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
30. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
31. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34; and Françoise Gardey, "Notices sur les dessinateurs et les graveurs et bibliographie," pp. 35-42. See also Terence M. Russell, Architecture in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert: The Letterpress Articles and Selected Engravings (Aldershot, 1993); and Frank A. Kafker and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "Notices sur les collaborateurs du Recueil de Planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, nos. 18-19 (1995): 200-230.
32. Stephen Werner, Blueprint: A Study of Diderot and the Encyclopédie Plates (Birmingham, Ala., 1993); Madeleine Pinault, "Sur les planches de l'Encyclopédie;" in Becq, L'Encyclopédisme, pp. 355-62; Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches de l'Encyclopédie: quelques examples," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 12 (1992): 99-112; and Madeleine Pinault Sørensen, "A propos des planches de l'Encyclopédie," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 15 (1993): 143-52; Roland Barthes, "Image, raison, déraison," in L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot (Paris, 1964), pp. 9-16. On the history of the plates and their makers, see Robert Mauzi, "Une souveraineté éphémère," L'univers de "l'Encyclopédie" de Diderot, pp. 17-22; Jean-Pierre Seguin, "Courte histoire des planches de l'Encyclopédie," pp. 23-34;
33. Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 134, 138; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932 (Baltimore, 1984), pp. 35, 38; Smith, p. 125.
34. Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 134, 138; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932 (Baltimore, 1984), pp. 35, 38; Smith, p. 125.
35. Eugene Ferguson, Engineering and the Mind's Eye (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 134, 138; David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932 (Baltimore, 1984), pp. 35, 38; Smith, p. 125.
36. Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, N.J., 1997), chap. 4; Antoine Picon, "Gestes ouvriers, opérations et processus techniques: La vision du travail des encyclopédistes," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 13 (1992): 131-47.
37. Ken Alder, Engineering the Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815 (Princeton, N.J., 1997), chap. 4; Antoine Picon, "Gestes ouvriers, opérations et processus techniques: La vision du travail des encyclopédistes," Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie, no. 13 (1992): 131-47.
38. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
39. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
40. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
41. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
42. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
43. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean-Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
44. See, for example, Raymond Birn, "Words and Pictures: Diderot's Vision and Publishers' Perceptions of Popular and Learned Culture in the Encyclopédie," in Popular Traditions and Learned Culture in France from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Marc Bertrand (Saratoga, Calif., 1985), pp. 73-92; Cynthia J. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order: Work in Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France: Representations, Meaning, Organization, and Practice, ed. Steven Laurence Kaplan and Cynthia J. Koepp (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), pp. 229-57; William H. Sewell, Jr., "Visions of Labor: Illustrations of the Mechanical Arts before, in, and after Diderot's Encyclopédie," in Work in France, pp. 258-86; Picon, "Gestes"; and Miriam R. Levin, "The Printed Image in Industrializing France from the Enlightenment until 1835," in Muse and Reason: The Relation of Arts and Sciences 1650-1850, ed. B. Castel, J. A. Leith, and A. W. Riley (Kingston, Ont., 1994), pp. 43-61. Birn showed how Diderot both recognized and blurred the hierarchy of labor in order to dignify the arts, through illustrating differences among the arts; Koepp emphasized the alphabetical structure by which Diderot reordered the arts in a way that dominant culture could exercise greater control over them; Sewell focused on how the plates represented a distinct break with views of community-held knowledge and skills in favor of a "scientized, individualized, utopian projection of the world of work as imagined by the philosophes" (p. 277); Picon discussed how the Encyclopédie was an important stage in quantifying work as reduced to machine execution; and Levin emphasized the contribution of the plates to a reformist atmosphere of broader communications, which would be adopted later in the dissemination of liberal and industrial ideology. While these interpretations continue the perception of systematic treatment of the arts, they do signal a shift in cultural perspectives of the arts and artisans. See also Jean- Pierre Le Goff, "Science et technique des représentations et représentation des sciences et techniques," in L'Encyclopédisme (n. 5 above), pp. 371-86; and Clorinda Donato and Robert M. Maniquis, eds., The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution (Boston, 1992).
45. Jacques Proust, "L'image du peuple au travail dans les planches de l'Encyclopédie," in Images du peuple au 18e siècle (Paris, 1973), p. 65. Giles G. Barber, in his introduction to Book Making in Diderot's "Encyclopédie" (Farnborough, 1973), introduced some of the main contributors to bookmaking and commented on some of their differences in style. For a general introduction to the relationship among articles, plates, and plate descriptions and how the nature, role, and length of plate descriptions changed over time, see Richard N. Schwab and Walter E. Rex, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," vol. 7 (Oxford, 1984): 3-32. Diderot himself acknowledged some differences in the scope of the explanations of the plates as the project progressed, for example, in the "Etat détaillé" of vol. 2, p. 6 and vol. 5, p. 6 of the plates.
46. Jacques Proust, "L'image du peuple au travail dans les planches de l'Encyclopédie," in Images du peuple au 18e siècle (Paris, 1973), p. 65. Giles G. Barber, in his introduction to Book Making in Diderot's "Encyclopédie" (Farnborough, 1973), introduced some of the main contributors to bookmaking and commented on some of their differences in style. For a general introduction to the relationship among articles, plates, and plate descriptions and how the nature, role, and length of plate descriptions changed over time, see Richard N. Schwab and Walter E. Rex, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," vol. 7 (Oxford, 1984): 3-32. Diderot himself acknowledged some differences in the scope of the explanations of the plates as the project progressed, for example, in the "Etat détaillé" of vol. 2, p. 6 and vol. 5, p. 6 of the plates.
47. Jacques Proust, "L'image du peuple au travail dans les planches de l'Encyclopédie," in Images du peuple au 18e siècle (Paris, 1973), p. 65. Giles G. Barber, in his introduction to Book Making in Diderot's "Encyclopédie" (Farnborough, 1973), introduced some of the main contributors to bookmaking and commented on some of their differences in style. For a general introduction to the relationship among articles, plates, and plate descriptions and how the nature, role, and length of plate descriptions changed over time, see Richard N. Schwab and Walter E. Rex, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," vol. 7 (Oxford, 1984): 3-32. Diderot himself acknowledged some differences in the scope of the explanations of the plates as the project progressed, for example, in the "Etat détaillé" of vol. 2, p. 6 and vol. 5, p. 6 of the plates.
48. Jacques Proust, "L'image du peuple au travail dans les planches de l'Encyclopédie," in Images du peuple au 18e siècle (Paris, 1973), p. 65. Giles G. Barber, in his introduction to Book Making in Diderot's "Encyclopédie" (Farnborough, 1973), introduced some of the main contributors to bookmaking and commented on some of their differences in style. For a general introduction to the relationship among articles, plates, and plate descriptions and how the nature, role, and length of plate descriptions changed over time, see Richard N. Schwab and Walter E. Rex, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," vol. 7 (Oxford, 1984): 3-32. Diderot himself acknowledged some differences in the scope of the explanations of the plates as the project progressed, for example, in the "Etat détaillé" of vol. 2, p. 6 and vol. 5, p. 6 of the plates.
49. More documentation on contributors and other contextual aspects of the Encyclopédie is now available, thanks to the indispensable volumes of the Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution, Oxford.: Richard N. Schwab, Walter E. Rex, and John Lough, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," 7 vols. (Geneva and Oxford, 1971-84) (Lough coauthored only the first three volumes); Frank A. Kafker, ed., Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Nine Predecessors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1981); Frank A. Kafker and Serena L. Kafker, The Encyclopedists as Individuals: A Biographical Dictionary of the Authors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1988). The Kafkers' work was extremely helpful in guiding me to original sources on contributors to the Encyclopédie. See also John Lough, The Encyclopédie (New York, 1971).
50. More documentation on contributors and other contextual aspects of the Encyclopédie is now available, thanks to the indispensable volumes of the Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution, Oxford.: Richard N. Schwab, Walter E. Rex, and John Lough, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," 7 vols. (Geneva and Oxford, 1971- 84) (Lough coauthored only the first three volumes); Frank A. Kafker, ed., Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Nine Predecessors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1981); Frank A. Kafker and Serena L. Kafker, The Encyclopedists as Individuals: A Biographical Dictionary of the Authors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1988). The Kafkers' work was extremely helpful in guiding me to original sources on contributors to the Encyclopédie. See also John Lough, The Encyclopédie (New York, 1971).
51. More documentation on contributors and other contextual aspects of the Encyclopédie is now available, thanks to the indispensable volumes of the Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution, Oxford.: Richard N. Schwab, Walter E. Rex, and John Lough, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," 7 vols. (Geneva and Oxford, 1971- 84) (Lough coauthored only the first three volumes); Frank A. Kafker, ed., Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Nine Predecessors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1981); Frank A. Kafker and Serena L. Kafker, The Encyclopedists as Individuals: A Biographical Dictionary of the Authors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1988). The Kafkers' work was extremely helpful in guiding me to original sources on contributors to the Encyclopédie. See also John Lough, The Encyclopédie (New York, 1971).
52. More documentation on contributors and other contextual aspects of the Encyclopédie is now available, thanks to the indispensable volumes of the Voltaire Foundation at the Taylor Institution, Oxford.: Richard N. Schwab, Walter E. Rex, and John Lough, Inventory of Diderot's "Encyclopédie," 7 vols. (Geneva and Oxford, 1971- 84) (Lough coauthored only the first three volumes); Frank A. Kafker, ed., Notable Encyclopedias of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: Nine Predecessors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1981); Frank A. Kafker and Serena L. Kafker, The Encyclopedists as Individuals: A Biographical Dictionary of the Authors of the "Encyclopédie" (Oxford, 1988). The Kafkers' work was extremely helpful in guiding me to original sources on contributors to the Encyclopédie. See also John Lough, The Encyclopédie (New York, 1971).
53. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54-S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
54. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54- S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
55. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54- S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
56. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54- S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
57. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54- S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
58. Steven Lubar has examined the issue of "technological representations" in detail; however, the scope of his analysis is broader than mine and his expression "technological representations" includes three-dimensional artifacts such as gauges, models, and measuring instruments in addition to printed matter. Steven Lubar, "Represenlation and Power," Technology and Culture 36 (April 1995, suppl.): S54- S81, especially S55. See also Alder, pp. 136-46. have not found a more satisfying term than "representation" to refer to the articles, plates, and plate descriptions as a whole; see, for example, the Encyclopédie, s.v."Décrire," by d'Alembert; "Description," by Daubenton, d'Alembert, Mallet, and Jaucourt; "Représentation," by Boucher d'Argis; "Représenter," unsigned.
59. See, for example, William H. Sewell Jr., Work and Revolution in France: The Language of Labor from the Old Regime to 1848 (Cambridge, 1980), pp. 65-72; and Alder, chap. 4.
60. I began to develop some of these ideas in an earlier analysis but had not yet formulated a broader interpretive context. See John R. Pannabecker, "Printing Technology in the Encyclopédie: Constructing Systematic Knowledge," Journal of Industrial Teacher Education 29, no. 4 (1992): 73-91.
61. Diderot's method consisted of five parts: "Here is the method we have followed for each art and craft. We treated the following questions: 1) The materials and the places where they are found, the manner in which they are prepared, their good and bad qualities, the different kinds available, the required processing before and during their utilization. 2) The main products that are made with them and how this is done. 3) We have supplied the names, descriptions, and diagrams of tools and machines, with their parts when taken apart and assembled; the section of certain molds and other instruments if it is appropriate to know about the interior design, their contours, etc. 4) We have explained and represented the workmanship and the principal operations in one or several plates where sometimes only the hands of the craftsman can be seen and sometimes the entire craftsman in action, working at the most important task in his art or trade. 5) We have collected and defined in the most accurate way possible the terms that are peculiar to a given art or trade." (S. J. Gendzier, Denis Diderot's "The Encyclopédie": Selections [New York, 1967], pp. 39-40.)
62. Diderot generally referred to artisans as artistes; a discussion of the use of terms for artisans in the Encyclopédie and 18th-century France is beyond the scope of this essay. See, for example, Friedmann (n. 4 above) and Sewell, Work and Revolution, pp. 22-24.
63. Critics often disregard the difference in time of publication between "Art" and "Encyclopédie," changes in Diderot's thinking on the process of representing the arts, and the implications of those changes, which I address in the final section of this article.
64. Diderot's other example of a woefully inadequate submission was "Composition en Peinture," written by an amateur, which Diderot claimed he himself had to rewrite even though he was neither amateur nor painter. Diderot noted that these cases occured before Watelet - one of the main contributors whose work is studied in this essay - began to assist him ("Encyclopédie," p. 641).
65. On the development of economic ideas in the 18th century and their relationship to the politics of trade guild control of technological knowledge, production, and markets, see Simone Meyssonnier, La balance et l'horloge: La génèse de la pensée liberale en France au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1989).
66. Sewell, Work and Revolution (n. 12 above), p. 65.
67. In this regard, a notable exception among critics is Jacques Proust (nn. 4 and 9 above). See also his Diderot et "l'Encyclopédie" (Paris, 1967), esp. chaps. 5 and 6; and "De L'Encyclopédie au Neveu de Rameau: L'objet et le texte," in Recherches nouvelles sur quelques écrivains des lumières (Geneva, 1972), pp. 273-340. The latter essay focuses on the relationships between Diderot's philosophical, literary, and technical writing.
68. In this regard, a notable exception among critics is Jacques Proust (nn. 4 and 9 above). See also his Diderot et "l'Encyclopédie" (Paris, 1967), esp. chaps. 5 and 6; and "De L'Encyclopédie au Neveu de Rameau: L'objet et le texte," in Recherches nouvelles sur quelques écrivains des lumières (Geneva, 1972), pp. 273-340. The latter essay focuses on the relationships between Diderot's philosophical, literary, and technical writing.
69. Analyses of the alleged plagiarism of the plates of the Academy constitute an important exception. I address this subject in the final section of this article. See Watts, Huard, and Daumas and Tresse (all n. 4 above).
70. On tacit knowledge, see H. M. Collins, "Expert Systems and the Science of Knowledge," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 329-48; Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Garden City, N.Y., 1966); and Richard Larson and Gabriel Segal, Knowledge of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Theory (Cambridge, Mass., 1995).
71. On tacit knowledge, see H. M. Collins, "Expert Systems and the Science of Knowledge," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 329-48; Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Garden City, N.Y., 1966); and Richard Larson and Gabriel Segal, Knowledge of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Theory (Cambridge, Mass., 1995).
72. On tacit knowledge, see H. M. Collins, "Expert Systems and the Science of Knowledge," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe E. Bijker, Thomas P. Hughes, and Trevor J. Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 329-48; Michael Polanyi, The Tacit Dimension (Garden City, N.Y., 1966); and Richard Larson and Gabriel Segal, Knowledge of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Theory (Cambridge, Mass., 1995).
73. The broadest coverage of Goussier's life and work is Georges Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier, Encyclopédiste et 'Original sans principes'," in Proust, Recherches nouvelles, pp. 63-110. Confirmation of his social status as an artisan can be found in the "Dossier Guenard Goussier" in the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal (ARS), 12050; and in a partial copy of the dossier in the Archives Nationales (AN), Y/11245.
74. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
75. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
76. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
77. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
78. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
79. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
80. Simori Pierre Fournier (the younger), Caractères de l'imprimerie, nouvellement gravés (1742; reprint, Pinner, Middlesex, 1975). Fournier the younger was a well-known printer and typefounder, almost the same age as Diderot, who had already published a book on printing type. Since the literature on 18th-century printing is extensive, only the most pertinent literature related to printing in the Encyclopédie is noted here. Barber (n. 9 above) introduced letterpress printing (excluding engraving and etching; including bookbinding) in the Encyclopédie. For a list of French printing manuals of the period, see Giles Barber, French letterpress Printing (Oxford, 1969), especially Martin Dominique Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie (Saint Omer, 1723). See also Nicholas Contat, Anecdotes typographiques (1761; reprint, ed. Giles G. Barber, Oxford, 1980); and the volumes of the Voltaire Foundation, especially Schwab and Rex (1984), pp. 24-32 (n. 10 above). On engraving, see Abraham Bosse, Traité des manières de graver en taille douce sur lairain par le moyen des eaues fortes et des vernix durs et mols ensemble de la façon d'en imprimer les planches, et d'en construire la presse (Paris, 1645). On papermaking, see Joseph Jérôme le Français de Lalande, Art de faire le papier, in Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above), vol. 15.
81. Goussier specifically mentioned his trip to Montargis in "Copie du Certificat de M. Goussier," in Réponse pour les libraires associés à l'Encyclopédie, au mémoire du marquis de la Saone and Consorts, intervenans, et contre, le sieur Luneau de Boisjermain (Paris, 1777), p. 42. See also Barber's introduction to Book Making for a background summary on contributors and sources.
82. Goussier specifically mentioned his trip to Montargis in "Copie du Certificat de M. Goussier," in Réponse pour les libraires associés à l'Encyclopédie, au mémoire du marquis de la Saone and Consorts, intervenans, et contre, le sieur Luneau de Boisjermain (Paris, 1777), p. 42. See also Barber's introduction to Book Making for a background summary on contributors and sources.
83. A common complaint of modern readers is that some articles of the Encyclopédie do not correspond to the plates.
84. Philippe Minard, Typographes de lumières (Seyssel, 1989), noted critics' contrasting views of pictorial representation (p. 190, n. 10). See also Darnton (n. 3 above), who contrasted his perception of the plates as representing "an immaculate, mechanical utopia" with Barthes' view of them as "intensely human scenes" (p. 242, n. 98). See Sewell, "Visions of Labor," (n. 8 above), pp. 268-79, for a broader analysis, though he noted the tentative nature of his comments and the need for more work by someone with an art historian's background. More recently, Madeleine Pinault (n. 5 above) has brought a background in art history to analyzing the plates. One of the least idealized portrayals of the arts that I have found is in the preliminary sketches for the Descriptions des arts et métiers located in the Bibliothèque de l'Institut (BI), MS 1064-1065. In a plate in vol. 2 of MS 1064 called "Amidonnier," the workers are shown preparing starch in a dingy room of dirty bricks with plaster falling from the walls.
85. Philippe Minard, Typographes de lumières (Seyssel, 1989), noted critics' contrasting views of pictorial representation (p. 190, n. 10). See also Darnton (n. 3 above), who contrasted his perception of the plates as representing "an immaculate, mechanical utopia" with Barthes' view of them as "intensely human scenes" (p. 242, n. 98). See Sewell, "Visions of Labor," (n. 8 above), pp. 268-79, for a broader analysis, though he noted the tentative nature of his comments and the need for more work by someone with an art historian's background. More recently, Madeleine Pinault (n. 5 above) has brought a background in art history to analyzing the plates. One of the least idealized portrayals of the arts that I have found is in the preliminary sketches for the Descriptions des arts et métiers located in the Bibliothèque de l'Institut (BI), MS 1064-1065. In a plate in vol. 2 of MS 1064 called "Amidonnier," the workers are shown preparing starch in a dingy room of dirty bricks with plaster falling from the walls.
86. Philippe Minard, Typographes de lumières (Seyssel, 1989), noted critics' contrasting views of pictorial representation (p. 190, n. 10). See also Darnton (n. 3 above), who contrasted his perception of the plates as representing "an immaculate, mechanical utopia" with Barthes' view of them as "intensely human scenes" (p. 242, n. 98). See Sewell, "Visions of Labor," (n. 8 above), pp. 268-79, for a broader analysis, though he noted the tentative nature of his comments and the need for more work by someone with an art historian's background. More recently, Madeleine Pinault (n. 5 above) has brought a background in art history to analyzing the plates. One of the least idealized portrayals of the arts that I have found is in the preliminary sketches for the Descriptions des arts et métiers located in the Bibliothèque de l'Institut (BI), MS 1064-1065. In a plate in vol. 2 of MS 1064 called "Amidonnier," the workers are shown preparing starch in a dingy room of dirty bricks with plaster falling from the walls.
87. See, for example, Tore Frängsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, eds., The Quantifying Spirit in the 18th Century (Berkeley, 1990); and M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, N.J., 1995). Picon (n. 7 above) emphasized the relationship between Diderot's mechanistic and quantifying perspective, how work was conceptualized, and the role of the Encyclopédie in disseminating this new perspective; however, he thought that only a few contributors to the Encyclopédie were fully aware of this perspective - for example, the engineer Perronnet.
88. See, for example, Tore Frängsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, eds., The Quantifying Spirit in the 18th Century (Berkeley, 1990); and M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, N.J., 1995). Picon (n. 7 above) emphasized the relationship between Diderot's mechanistic and quantifying perspective, how work was conceptualized, and the role of the Encyclopédie in disseminating this new perspective; however, he thought that only a few contributors to the Encyclopédie were fully aware of this perspective - for example, the engineer Perronnet.
89. See, for example, Tore Frängsmyr, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, eds., The Quantifying Spirit in the 18th Century (Berkeley, 1990); and M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, N.J., 1995). Picon (n. 7 above) emphasized the relationship between Diderot's mechanistic and quantifying perspective, how work was conceptualized, and the role of the Encyclopédie in disseminating this new perspective; however, he thought that only a few contributors to the Encyclopédie were fully aware of this perspective - for example, the engineer Perronnet.
90. Denis Diderot, Oeuvres philosophiques, ed. Paul Vernière (Paris, 1961), p. 97.
91. Ibid., p. 85.
92. Denis Diderot, Oeuvres romanesques, ed. Henri Bénac (Paris, 1962). According to this edition's editor, Henri Bénac, the date of the composition of Jacques le fataliste is unknown but was probably in the mid-1770s; it was first published in 1796 (pp. 890-91).
93. Denis Diderot, Oeuvres romanesques, ed. Henri Bénac (Paris, 1962). According to this edition's editor, Henri Bénac, the date of the composition of Jacques le fataliste is unknown but was probably in the mid-1770s; it was first published in 1796 (pp. 890-91).
94. Diderot, Oeuvres romanesques, pp. 554-5. See also Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier" (n. 23 above), and Diderot, Oeuvres philosophiques, editor's note, p. 81.
95. Diderot, Oeuvres romanesques, pp. 554-5. See also Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier" (n. 23 above), and Diderot, Oeuvres philosophiques, editor's note, p. 81.
96. Diderot, Oeuvres romanesques, pp. 554-5. See also Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier" (n. 23 above), and Diderot, Oeuvres philosophiques, editor's note, p. 81.
97. Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier." See Le Guay de Prémontval, Discours sur l'utilité des mathématiques (Paris, 1742).
98. Dulac, "Louis-Jacques Goussier." See Le Guay de Prémontval, Discours sur l'utilité des mathématiques (Paris, 1742).
99. D. F. Donnant, "Nécrologie," Journal de Paris (8 brumaire, year VIII): 181-82, in Archives of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM), 7-134. This was also published in the Magasin encyclopédique 5 (1799): 215-17.
100. D. F. Donnant, "Nécrologie," Journal de Paris (8 brumaire, year VIII): 181-82, in Archives of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM), 7-134. This was also published in the Magasin encyclopédique 5 (1799): 215-17.
101. AN, U/*1051. See also Louis-Philippe May's transcription of the accounts of the Encyclopédie: "Documents nouveaux sur l'Encyclopédie," Revue de synthèse (1938): 31-110. Goussier's name is listed frequently from 1747 to 1760.
102. AN, U/*1051. See also Louis-Philippe May's transcription of the accounts of the Encyclopédie: "Documents nouveaux sur l'Encyclopédie," Revue de synthèse (1938): 31-110. Goussier's name is listed frequently from 1747 to 1760.
103. Donnant, "Nécrologie."
104. In the later 1790s, Goussier's name was listed for "studies of the manner of tracing screws and nuts." When he died in 1799, a description of his work specifically noted that he was just finishing "an interesting work that he had undertaken for the Conservatoire on the fabrication of screws and nuts": CNAM, 10-115; 7-134; Portefeuille de Vaucanson. The drawing by Goussier in the "Portefeuille de Vaucanson," No. 47, shows highly detailed machine parts, including screws, for a portrait lathe by Houlot. In contrast, Jacques Jaugeon, who prepared an unpublished manuscript on letterpress printing for the Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above) paid little attention to the press screw: "Description et Perfection des Arts et Métiers. Des Arts. De construire les caractères. De graver les poinçons de Lettres. De fondre les lettres. D'imprimer les lettres, et De relier les livres," Bibliothèque Nationale (BN), fr. 9157-9158, and BI, MS 2741.
105. Charles Gillispie, Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime (Princeton, 1980), pp. 444-47.
106. Barber thought Goussier's article on papermaking more impersonal than the text on printing, which was "written by a practician"; introduction to Book Making (n. 9 above).
107. On Watelet's extensive interest in the mechanical and fine arts,
108. On Watelet's extensive interest in the mechanical and fine arts, pedagogy, and writing, and his activities in the art world, see C.-H. Watelet and P.-C. Lévesque, Dictionnaire des arts et peinture, sculpture et gravure, 5 vols. (1792; reprint, Geneva, 1972); Roger Portalis, Les graveurs du dix-huitième siècle, vol. 3 (Paris, 1882), pp. 633-49; Jacques Chouillet, La formation des idées esthétiques de Diderot, 1745-1763 (Paris, 1973); and Dora Wiebenson, The Picturesque Garden in France (Princeton, 1978), pp. 15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafker and Kafker suggested that Watelet probably became involved in the Encyclopédie through his friend d'Alembert rather than any ties to Diderot (n. 10 above, pp. 396-400). Like Diderot, Watelet attracted the attention of police inspector Joseph d'Hémery; BN, f.fr. 22066. These files were popularized in Robert Darnton's The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984), pp. 107-89, although Darnton did not mention Watelet. According to d'Hémery's entry of 1 August 1749, Watelet was blond and had a "small, thin, handsome face." D'Hémery also claimed that Watelet was very bright and had written a play titled Melanide.
109. On Watelet's extensive interest in the mechanical and fine arts, pedagogy, and writing, and his activities in the art world, see C.-H. Watelet and P.-C. Lévesque, Dictionnaire des arts et peinture, sculpture et gravure, 5 vols. (1792; reprint, Geneva, 1972); Roger Portalis, Les graveurs du dix-huitième siècle, vol. 3 (Paris, 1882), pp. 633- 49; Jacques Chouillet, La formation des idées esthétiques de Diderot, 1745-1763 (Paris, 1973); and Dora Wiebenson, The Picturesque Garden in France (Princeton, 1978), pp. 15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafker and Kafker suggested that Watelet probably became involved in the Encyclopédie through his friend d'Alembert rather than any ties to Diderot (n. 10 above, pp. 396-400). Like Diderot, Watelet attracted the attention of police inspector Joseph d'Hémery; BN, f.fr. 22066. These files were popularized in Robert Darnton's The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984), pp. 107-89, although Darnton did not mention Watelet. According to d'Hémery's entry of 1 August 1749, Watelet was blond and had a "small, thin, handsome face." D'Hémery also claimed that Watelet was very bright and had written a play titled Melanide.
110. On Watelet's extensive interest in the mechanical and fine arts, pedagogy, and writing, and his activities in the art world, see C.-H. Watelet and P.-C. Lévesque, Dictionnaire des arts et peinture, sculpture et gravure, 5 vols. (1792; reprint, Geneva, 1972); Roger Portalis, Les graveurs du dix-huitième siècle, vol. 3 (Paris, 1882), pp. 633- 49; Jacques Chouillet, La formation des idées esthétiques de Diderot, 1745-1763 (Paris, 1973); and Dora Wiebenson, The Picturesque Garden in France (Princeton, 1978), pp. 15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafker and Kafker suggested that Watelet probably became involved in the Encyclopédie through his friend d'Alembert rather than any ties to Diderot (n. 10 above, pp. 396-400). Like Diderot, Watelet attracted the attention of police inspector Joseph d'Hémery; BN, f.fr. 22066. These files were popularized in Robert Darnton's The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984), pp. 107-89, although Darnton did not mention Watelet. According to d'Hémery's entry of 1 August 1749, Watelet was blond and had a "small, thin, handsome face." D'Hémery also claimed that Watelet was very bright and had written a play titled Melanide.
111. On Watelet's extensive interest in the mechanical and fine arts, pedagogy, and writing, and his activities in the art world, see C.-H. Watelet and P.-C. Lévesque, Dictionnaire des arts et peinture, sculpture et gravure, 5 vols. (1792; reprint, Geneva, 1972); Roger Portalis, Les graveurs du dix-huitième siècle, vol. 3 (Paris, 1882), pp. 633- 49; Jacques Chouillet, La formation des idées esthétiques de Diderot, 1745-1763 (Paris, 1973); and Dora Wiebenson, The Picturesque Garden in France (Princeton, 1978), pp. 15-19, 28-31, 64-70. Kafker and Kafker suggested that Watelet probably became involved in the Encyclopédie through his friend d'Alembert rather than any ties to Diderot (n. 10 above, pp. 396-400). Like Diderot, Watelet attracted the attention of police inspector Joseph d'Hémery; BN, f.fr. 22066. These files were popularized in Robert Darnton's The Great Cat Massacre (New York, 1984), pp. 107-89, although Darnton did not mention Watelet. According to d'Hémery's entry of 1 August 1749, Watelet was blond and had a "small, thin, handsome face." D'Hémery also claimed that Watelet was very bright and had written a play titled Melanide.
112. Bosse, Traité des manières (n. 24 above). When Watelet was working on this article in the mid-1750s, Bosse's book had already gone through three editions (Paris, 1645, 1701, and 1745, the last with the slightly modified title De la Manière de graver à l'eau forte et au burin et de la gravure en manière noire, avec la façon de construire des presses modernes et d'imprimer en taille-douce). Le Clerc, whom Watelet cited, added one and a half pages and a plate to the 1701 edition. The 1745 edition was almost twice as long, including 19 plates; though the book does not name who did the revision, Watelet gave credit to Cochin fils (Prévost's collaborator).
113. Bosse, Traité des manières (n. 24 above). When Watelet was working on this article in the mid-1750s, Bosse's book had already gone through three editions (Paris, 1645, 1701, and 1745, the last with the slightly modified title De la Manière de graver à l'eau forte et au burin et de la gravure en manière noire, avec la façon de construire des presses modernes et d'imprimer en taille-douce). Le Clerc, whom Watelet cited, added one and a half pages and a plate to the 1701 edition. The 1745 edition was almost twice as long, including 19 plates; though the book does not name who did the revision, Watelet gave credit to Cochin fils (Prévost's collaborator).
114. Compare, for example, the first few pages of Watelet's "Gravure," with Diderot's "Caractères d'Imprimerie" and Goussier's "Papeterie." Granted Goussier began on a different scale by describing large machinery for making pulp. But in other sections, such as making individual sheets of paper, the third person and impersonal style still dominate.
115. Compare, for example, the first few pages of Watelet's "Gravure," with Diderot's "Caractères d'Imprimerie" and Goussier's "Papeterie." Granted Goussier began on a different scale by describing large machinery for making pulp. But in other sections, such as making individual sheets of paper, the third person and impersonal style still dominate.
116. Compare, for example, the first few pages of Watelet's "Gravure," with Diderot's "Caractères d'Imprimerie" and Goussier's "Papeterie." Granted Goussier began on a different scale by describing large machinery for making pulp. But in other sections, such as making individual sheets of paper, the third person and impersonal style still dominate.
117. Gardey (n. 5 above); Portails, pp. 348-57. Prévost was a specialized designer and engraver and contributed to some seventy other works in addition to the Encyclopédie.
118. See Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), p. 268.
119. According to Kafker and Kafker, p. 78, Brullé assisted Le Breton in censoring the last ten letterpress volumes, an act that so infuriated Diderot that he called Brullé bête brute, boucher, and Ostrogoth. Little is known about his background, although there was a Phillippe Brulle, a printer received as master in Bordeaux in 1701 (BN, fr. 22125). The article on letterpress printing in the Encyclopédie claimed that Le Breton's foreman (i.e., Brullé) was its author. But the origin of the text was disputed by Claude-François Simon, a reputable printer who according to Joseph d'Hémery's police records of 1 April 1751 was a "printer of the Queen and Archbishop," had been requested by the court to write a history of printing, and had been recognized by d'Argenson for the high quality of his work (BN, n.a.fr. 10783). In 1758, Simon described in a mémoire secret how in 1748 two high government officials (d'Aguesseau and Maboul) had requested that he submit parts of his treatise on printing to Diderot and David (BN, f.fr. 22066 pièce 25). When Simon inquired about his manuscript in 1751, Diderot and his publishers apparently gave him the runaround (indécent balottage). He further claimed that Diderot and Le Breton (a publishing colleague of David) used his manuscript for the Encyclopédie while alleging that Le Breton had done the work. Simon requested reimbursement and the return of his notebooks. The mémoire was written in the period between Réaumur's complaints of plagiarism of the plates in 1756 and Pierre Patte's subsequent accusation of Diderot's plagiarism of the plates in 1759 (see Watts and Huard, both n. 4 above). Simon continued to press his claims and on 11 October 1763, invited d'Hémery to hear him read from his Art de l'Imprimerie (BN f.fr. 22066, pièce 32). Simon's mémoire is so full of specific details and emotion that it is hard to believe that at least some of it was not true.
120. This analysis of Brullé's text is adapted from Pannabecker, "Printing Technology" (n. 13 above), pp. 80, 84-85.
121. See the 1701 edition of Bosse (n. 41 above), in which Le Clerc added his method of pouring the acid onto the plate (pp. 31-32), along with a plate signed by F. Ertinger Neither Bosse nor Le Clerc seemed very concerned about safety; Le Clerc's innovation resulted from his claim that Bosse's method tended to loosen the resist.
122. Watelet's article "Gravure" appeared in volume 7 in 1757, the last volume published before the privilege for the text was revoked in 1759. Prévost's plates and descriptions in volume 5 of the plates were not published until 1767.
123. For an interpretation of cats in artisanal culture of 18th-century France, see Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (n. 40 above), pp. 75-104, and Contat (n. 24 above), pp. 51-53. For an example of how a social historian has integrated representations of the arts, technical knowledge, and issues of toxic substances into a study of artisanal culture, see Michael Sonenscher, The Hatters of Eighteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1987), especially chap. 9.
124. For an interpretation of cats in artisanal culture of 18th-century France, see Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (n. 40 above), pp. 75-104, and Contat (n. 24 above), pp. 51-53. For an example of how a social historian has integrated representations of the arts, technical knowledge, and issues of toxic substances into a study of artisanal culture, see Michael Sonenscher, The Hatters of Eighteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1987), especially chap. 9.
125. The social process of negotiating standards for representing the arts has much in common with the process of negotiating standards for patents. See, for example, Technology and Culture 32 (1991), special issue (October) on patents and invention. In that issue, Lilian Hilaire-Pérez pointed out the intended role of the Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above) to "penetrate the secrecy" of the arts ("Invention and the State in 18th-Century France," pp. 916-17). Beyond that intended role, which was shared by Diderot, the design of verbal and pictorial representations facilitated discourse on the arts, including discourse on invention.
126. The social process of negotiating standards for representing the arts has much in common with the process of negotiating standards for patents. See, for example, Technology and Culture 32 (1991), special issue (October) on patents and invention. In that issue, Lilian Hilaire-Pérez pointed out the intended role of the Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above) to "penetrate the secrecy" of the arts ("Invention and the State in 18th-Century France," pp. 916-17). Beyond that intended role, which was shared by Diderot, the design of verbal and pictorial representations facilitated discourse on the arts, including discourse on invention.
127. The social process of negotiating standards for representing the arts has much in common with the process of negotiating standards for patents. See, for example, Technology and Culture 32 (1991), special issue (October) on patents and invention. In that issue, Lilian Hilaire-Pérez pointed out the intended role of the Descriptions des arts et métiers (n. 4 above) to "penetrate the secrecy" of the arts ("Invention and the State in 18th-Century France," pp. 916-17). Beyond that intended role, which was shared by Diderot, the design of verbal and pictorial representations facilitated discourse on the arts, including discourse on invention.
128. For a general introduction to the Encyclopédie and the context of its publication, see John Lough, The Encyclopédie (n. 10 above).
129. For purposes of comparison, Madeleine Pinault, "Les métamorphoses des planches" (n. 5 above), developed a formal typology of plate designs in the Encyclopédie. She emphasized the perennial nature of these models, showing how they influenced each other and evolved in a more general manner before and after the Encyclopédie.
130. On the technical details of the alleged plagiarism of the Academy plates, see, for example, Watts, Huard, and Daumas and Tresse (n. 4 above).
131. Watts, p. 445-46.
132. See the vignette at the top of p. 129 of the 1745 edition of Bosse's De la Manière de graver . . . (n. 41 above), which is signed "Ab Bosse" and "Soubeyran." The vignette closely resembles a similar plate by Bosse located in the BN (Cabinet des estampes), reproduced and discussed in Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), p. 266. The earlier editions of Bosse's work contain plates that are a mirror image view of only the center part of the vignette of the 1745 edition.
133. See the vignette at the top of p. 129 of the 1745 edition of Bosse's De la Manière de graver . . . (n. 41 above), which is signed "Ab Bosse" and "Soubeyran." The vignette closely resembles a similar plate by Bosse located in the BN (Cabinet des estampes), reproduced and discussed in Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), p. 266. The earlier editions of Bosse's work contain plates that are a mirror image view of only the center part of the vignette of the 1745 edition.
134. For example, see Jaugeon's manuscript on letterpress printing (n. 37 above).
135. Bosse, Traité des manières (n. 24 above).
136. Sewell considered that the plates of the Encyclopédie "marked a sharp break with tradition, a break that parallels the ideological rupture between the philosophes and surrounding Old Regime society"; see "Visions of Labor," p. 268. He also felt that the workers were portrayed as "docile automatons," a view he considered similar to Darnton's, but "fundamentally at odds" with that of Roland Barthes (p. 277).
137. For an overview of Bacon's influence, see Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (n. 40 above), pp. 191-213.
138. See Goussier, "Copie du Certificat de M. Goussier" (n. 25 above).
139. For account books, see AN, U/*1051 (n. 35 above).
140. This is, of course, Diderot's perspective. If C.-F. Simon's account (n. 45 above) of his treatment by Diderot and the publishers between 1748 and 1751 is true, and if such treatment of artisans' submissions was common, then Diderot's frustrations were also due to his own inattention and the social conflict that resulted.
141. Sonenscher (n. 49 above) discusses differences in making hats in Paris and the provinces.
142. Proust suggested that Diderot's involvement in the shops was probably minimal, and that his role was primarily one of editorial direction; Diderot et "l'Encyclopédie" (n. 20 above), pp. 192-95.
143. See Lubar (n. 11 above) for a discussion of the relationship between grammar and empire, and technological representations as a language of technological bureaucracy.
144. See also, for example, historians of uniform manufacturing who have cited the Encyclopédie as an early source: Alder (n. 7 above), Hounshell (n. 6 above), and Smith (n. 3 above).
145. Lubar, p. S56, suggested that an analysis of representations will help bridge the gap between two main themes or schools - biography and visual thinking approaches, and social process approaches. For the visual thinking school of historiography, technological knowledge is typically treated as "pure thought" in the inventor's mind; hence its close association with biography. In contrast, social process schools focus on the social, cultural, and political nature of technology. Alder, pp. 136, 138, 143, 145-6.
146. Lubar, p. S62; Alder, pp. 73-74, 139-46, 305-7.
147. Lubar, p. S60.
148. Ferguson (n. 6 above), pp. 58-59, discussed the importance of workers' tacit knowledge in industrial production. See also Collins, Polanyi, and Larson and Segal (n. 22 above).
149. Patrick Joyce, The Historical Meanings of Work (Cambridge, 1987), p. 7. Joyce added that "it is arguable that employment relations may be culturally structured in a way as to be mainly reciprocal or even consensual in character."
150. See, for example, a printer, Nicholas Contat (n. 24 above); a glazier, Jacques- Louis Ménétra, Journal de ma vie, ed. Daniel Roche (Paris, 1982); and a printer, Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, Monsieur Nicolas, 2 vols. (Paris, 1794-97).
151. See, for example, a printer, Nicholas Contat (n. 24 above); a glazier, Jacques-Louis Ménétra, Journal de ma vie, ed. Daniel Roche (Paris, 1982); and a printer, Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, Monsieur Nicolas, 2 vols. (Paris, 1794-97).
152. See, for example, a printer, Nicholas Contat (n. 24 above); a glazier, Jacques- Louis Ménétra, Journal de ma vie, ed. Daniel Roche (Paris, 1982); and a printer, Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, Monsieur Nicolas, 2 vols. (Paris, 1794-97).
153. Sewell, Work and Revolution (n. 12 above), pp. 5-13; and Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order" (n. 8 above), p. 257.
154. Sewell, Work and Revolution (n. 12 above), pp. 5-13; and Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order" (n. 8 above), p. 257.
155. See, for example. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order," p. 257; and Sewell, Work and Revolution, p. 8. I suggest that authorship of discourse on the arts needs to be examined in greater detail and that intellectuality be extended to include technical thought.
156. See, for example. Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order," p. 257; and Sewell, Work and Revolution, p. 8. I suggest that authorship of discourse on the arts needs to be examined in greater detail and that intellectuality be extended to include technical thought.
157. Nevertheless, Goussier's domestic problems are recorded in a police dossier, as is the accusation that he and coworkers participated in the events of the royalist insurrection of 13 vendémiaire, year IV (5 October 1795), to which their defense included a description of their intellectual work (CNAM, 7-110; see also Dulac [n. 23 above]).
158. See, for example, Picon (n. 7 above), and Koepp, "The Alphabetical Order."
159. Encyclopédie méthodique, ou par ordre de matières . . . (Paris and Liège, 1782-1832). See Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), pp. 279-86, for an analysis of the Encyclopédie's persistent prestige in 19th-century pictorial descriptions of the arts.
160. Encyclopédie méthodique, ou par ordre de matières . . . (Paris and Liège, 1782-1832). See Sewell, "Visions of Labor" (n. 8 above), pp. 279-86, for an analysis of the Encyclopédie's persistent prestige in 19th-century pictorial descriptions of the arts.