The Shifting Basis of Life Satisfaction Judgments Across Cultures: Emotions Versus Norms

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 74, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 482-493

  Suh, Eunkook ^a   Diener, Ed ^a   Oishi, Shigehiro ^a   Triandis, Harry C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032342033     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.482     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Andersen, S. M. (1984). Self-knowledge and social inference: II. The diagnosticity of cognitive/affective and behavioral data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 294-307.
2. Andersen, S. M., & Ross, L. (1984). Self-knowledge and social inference: I. The impact of cognitive/affective and behavioral data. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 280-293.
3. Balatsky, G., & Diener, E. (1993). Subjective well-being among Russian students. Social Indicators Research, 28, 225-243.
4. Batson, C. D., Turk, C. L., Shaw, L. L., & Klein, T. R. (1995). Information function of empathic emotion: Learning that we value the other's welfare. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 300-313.
5. Bond, M. H., & Cheung, T. (1981). College students' spontaneous self-concept: The effects of culture among respondents in Hong Kong, Japan, and the United States. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 14, 153-171.
6. Bontempo, R., & Rivero, J. C. (1992, August). Cultural variation in cognition: The role of self-concept in the attitude-behavior link. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Academy of Management, Las Vegas, NV.
7. Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago: Aldine.
8. Budescu, D. V. (1993). Dominance analysis: A new approach to the problem of relative importance of predictors in multiple regression. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 542-551.
9. Campbell, J. D., Trapness, P. D., Heine, S. J., Katz, I. M., Lavallee, L. F., & Lehman, D. R. (1996). Self-concept clarity: Measurement, personality correlates, and cultural boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 141-156.
10. Cantor, N. (1990). From thought to behavior: "Having" and "doing" in the study of personality and cognition. American Psychologist, 45, 735-750.
11. Clore, G. L., & Parrott, W. G. (1994). Cognitive feelings and metacognitive judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 101-115.
12. Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., & Conway, M. (1994). Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 323-417). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
13. Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO Personality Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
14. Cousins, S. (1989). Culture and selfhood in Japan and the U.S. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 124-131.
15. Davidson, A. R., Jaccard, J. J., Triandis, H. C., Morales, M. L., & Diaz-Guerrero, R. (1976). Cross-cultural model testing: Toward a solution of the etic-emic dilemma. International Journal of Psychology, 11, 1-13.
16. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542-575.
17. Diener, E. (1994). Assessing subjective well-being: Progress and opportunities. Social Indicators Research, 31, 103-157.
18. Diener, E., & Diener, M. (1995). Cross-cultural correlates of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653-663.
19. Diener, E., Diener, M., & Diener, C. (1995). Factors predicting the subjective well-being of nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 851-864.
20. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.
21. Diener, E., & Larsen, R. J. (1993). The experience of emotional well-being. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 404-415). New York: Guilford Press.
22. Diener, E., & Lucas, R. L. (in press). Personality and subjective well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Understanding quality of life: Scientific perspectives on enjoyment and suffering. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
23. Diener, E., & Suh, E. (in press-a). Age and subjective well-being: An international analysis. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics.
24. Diener, E., & Suh, E. (in press-b). National differences in subjective well-being. In D. Kahneman, E. Diener, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Understanding quality of life: Scientific perspectives on enjoyment and suffering. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
25. Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1997). Measuring quality of life: Economic, social, and subjective indicators. Social Indicators Research, 40, 189-216.
26. Diener, E., Suh, E., Smith, H., & Shao, L. (1995). National differences in reported subjective well-being: Why do they occur? Social Indicators Research, 34, 7-32.
27. Enker, M. S. (1987). Attitudinal and normative variables as predictors of cheating behavior. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 315-330.
28. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
29. Fiske, A. P., Kitayama, S., Markus, H., & Nisbett, R. E. (in press). The cultural matrix of social psychology. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
30. Fox, C. R., & Kahneman, D. (1992). Correlations, causes and heuristics in surveys of life satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 27, 221-234.
31. Fujita, F. (1991). An investigation of the relationship between extraversion, neuroticism, positive affect, and negative affect. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
32. Geertz, C. (1984). "From the native's point of view": On the nature of anthropological understanding. In R. A. Shweder & R. A. LeVine (Eds.), Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion (pp. 123-136). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
33. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
34. Kashima, Y., Siegal, M., Tanaka, K., & Kashima, E. S. (1992). Do people believe behaviours are consistent with attitudes? Towards a cultural psychology of attribution processes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 111-124.
35. Katz, I. M., & Campbell, J. D. (1994). Ambivalence over emotional expression and well-being: Nomothetic and idiographic tests of the stress-buffering hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 513-524.
36. Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Kagitçibasi, C., Choi, S.-C. & Yoon, G. (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, & applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
37. King, L. A., & Emmons, R. A. (1990). Conflict over emotional expression: Psychological and physical correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 864-877.
38. Kitayama, S. (1992). Some thoughts on the cognitive-psychodynamic self from a cultural perspective. Psychological Inquiry, 3, 41-44.
39. Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. (Eds.). (1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
40. Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. (1995). Construal of the self as a cultural frame: Implications for internationalizing psychology. In N. R. Goldberger & J. B. Veroff (Eds.), The culture and psychology reader (pp. 366-383). New York: New York University Press.
41. Kwan, V. S. Y., Bond, M. H., & Singelis, T. M. (1997). Pancultural explanations for life satisfaction: Adding relationship harmony to self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1038-1051.
42. Levenson, R. W., Ekman, P., Heider, K., & Friesen, W. V. (1992). Emotion and automatic nervous system activity in the Minangkabau of West Sumatra. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 972-988.
43. Lucas, R., Diener, E., Shao, L., & Suh, E. (1997). Extraversion and pleasant affect across cultures. Manuscript in preparation. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
44. Lucas, R., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616-628.
45. Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253.
46. Markus, H., & Kitayama, S. (1994). A collective fear of the collectives: Implications for selves and theories of selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 568-579.
47. Mauro, R., Sato, K., & Tucker, J. (1992). The role of appraisal in human emotions: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 301-317.
48. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442.
49. Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 179-204.
50. Miller, J. G. (1984). Culture and the development of everyday social explanations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 961-978.
51. Miller, L. E., & Grush, J. E. (1986). Individual differences in attitudinal versus normative determination of behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 190-202.
52. Morris, M. W., & Peng, K. (1994). Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social and physical events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 949-971.
53. Myers, D. G., & Diener, E. (1995). Who is happy? Psychological Science, 6, 10-19.
54. Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the Satisfaction With Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164-172.
55. Pepitone, A., & Triandis, H. C. (1988). On the universality of social psychological theories. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 471-498.
56. Potter, S. H. (1988). The cultural construction of emotion in rural Chinese social life. Ethos, 16, 181-208.
57. Rhee, E., Uleman, J. S., Lee, H. K., & Roman, R. J. (1995). Spontaneous self-descriptions and ethnic identities in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 142-152.
58. Roseman, I. J., Dhawan, N., Rettek, S. I., Naidu, R. K., & Thapa, K. (1995). Cultural differences and cross-cultural similarities in appraisals and emotional responses. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 26, 23-48.
59. Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173-220). New York: Academic Press.
60. Russell, J. A. (1991). Culture and the categorization of emotions. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 426-450.
61. Russell, J. A., Fernandez-Dols, J., Manstead, A., & Wellenkamp, J. (Eds.). (1995). Everyday conceptions of emotion: An introduction to the psychology, anthropology, and linguistics of emotion. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
62. Scherer, K. R., & Wallbott, H. G. (1994). Evidence for universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 310-328.
63. Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527-561). New York: Guilford Press.
64. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattributions, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513-523.
65. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1988). How do I feel about it? Informative functions of affective states. In K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognitions, and social behavior (pp. 44-62). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Hogrefe.
66. Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1991). Evaluating one's life: A judgment model of subjective well-being. In F. Strack, M. Argyle, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Subjective well-being: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 27-47). Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
67. Senn, D. J. (1988). Myopic social psychology: An overemphasis on individualistic explanations of social behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 3, 45-52.
68. Shao, L. (1993). Multilanguage comparability of life satisfaction and happiness measures in mainland Chinese and American students. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
69. Strack, F., Martin, L. L., & Schwarz, N. (1988). Priming and communication: The social determinants of information use in judgments of life satisfaction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 429-442.
70. Strack, F., Schwarz, N., Chassein, B., Kern, D., & Wagner, D. (1990). Salience of comparison standards and the activation of social norms: Consequences for judgments of happiness and their communication. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 303-314.
71. Suh, E. (1994). Emotion norms, values, familiarity, and subjective well-being: A cross-cultural examination. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
72. Suh, E., & Diener, E. (1997, May). The chronic influence of culture and ethnicity on life satisfaction judgments. Paper presented at the Ninth Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Society, Washington, DC.
73. Suh, E., Diener, E., & Fujita, F. (1996). Events and subjective well-being: Only recent events matter. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1091-1102.
74. Trafimow, D., & Finlay, K. A. (1996). The importance of subjective norms for a minority of people: Between-subjects and within-subjects analyses. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 820-828.
75. Triandis, H. C. (1989). Self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96, 269-289.
76. Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
77. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
78. Triandis, H. C., Leung, K., Villareal, M., & Clack, F. L. (1985). Allocentric and idiocentric tendencies: Convergent and discriminant validation. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 395-415.
79. World Values Study Group. World Values Survey, 1981-1984 and 1990-1993 (ICPSR version) [Electronic data file]. (1994). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research [Producer and Distributor].
80. Ybarra, C., & Trafimow, D. (1996). How priming the private self or collective self affects the relative weights of attitudes and subjective norms. Manuscript in preparation.