Is there an alternative to 'Schengenland'?

Political Studies

Volumn 46, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 886-902

  Kostakopoulou, Dora ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032325290     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00173     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. 1 The Schengen Implementing Agreement of 19 June 1990 introduces a series of provisions to compensate for the abolition of border controls in the Schengen area. As from March 1995, it was applied among Germany, France, the Benelux countries, Spain and Portugal. Italy and Greece have acceded to the Convention, but are excluded from its application until a later stage. Austria acceded to the Convention in April 1995 and it is expected that all Nordic States will join the Schengen club. Although the Schengen Agreements are part of International Law and not European Law, they have, nevertheless, been the model for the emerging European immigration policy. The Schengen Convention stipulates that Community rules take precedence over the Schengen in the event of conflict (Article 134), and efforts are made for the Schengen's incorporation in the Third Pillar structure
2. 2 R. Miles and D. Thranhardt (eds), Migration and European Integration: the Politics of Inclusion and Exclusion in Europe (London, Pinter, 1995).
3. 3 J. Monar and R. Morgan (eds), The Third Pillar of the European Union: Co-operation in the Fields of Justice and Home Affairs (Brussels, Interuniversity Press, 1994); G. D. Korella and P. M. Twomey (eds), Towards a European Immigration Policy (Brussels, European Interuniversity press, 1995).
4. 3 J. Monar and R. Morgan (eds), The Third Pillar of the European Union: Co-operation in the Fields of Justice and Home Affairs (Brussels, Interuniversity Press, 1994); G. D. Korella and P. M. Twomey (eds), Towards a European Immigration Policy (Brussels, European Interuniversity press, 1995).
5. 4 S. Castles and M. J. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World (London, Macmillan, 1993); S. Collinson, European and International Migration (London, Pinter, 1993)
6. 4 S. Castles and M. J. Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World (London, Macmillan, 1993); S. Collinson, European and International Migration (London, Pinter, 1993)
7. 5 See D. Cesarani and M. Filbrook (eds), Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London, Routledge, 1996); P. Weil, 'Nationalities and Citizenships' in Cesarani and Fulbrook, Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe', T. Hammar (ed.), European Immigration Policy: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Baldwin-Edwards and M. A. Schain, 'The politics of immigration', West European Politics: Special Issue, 17, 2 (1994); J. Wrench and J. Solomos (eds), Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford, Berg, 1993); J. Rex and B. Dury (eds), Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Cultural Europe (Aldershot, Avebury, 1994).
8. 5 See D. Cesarani and M. Filbrook (eds), Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London, Routledge, 1996); P. Weil, 'Nationalities and Citizenships' in Cesarani and Fulbrook, Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe', T. Hammar (ed.), European Immigration Policy: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Baldwin-Edwards and M. A. Schain, 'The politics of immigration', West European Politics: Special Issue, 17, 2 (1994); J. Wrench and J. Solomos (eds), Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford, Berg, 1993); J. Rex and B. Dury (eds), Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Cultural Europe (Aldershot, Avebury, 1994).
9. 5 See D. Cesarani and M. Filbrook (eds), Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London, Routledge, 1996); P. Weil, 'Nationalities and Citizenships' in Cesarani and Fulbrook, Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe', T. Hammar (ed.), European Immigration Policy: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Baldwin-Edwards and M. A. Schain, 'The politics of immigration', West European Politics: Special Issue, 17, 2 (1994); J. Wrench and J. Solomos (eds), Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford, Berg, 1993); J. Rex and B. Dury (eds), Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Cultural Europe (Aldershot, Avebury, 1994).
10. 5 See D. Cesarani and M. Filbrook (eds), Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London, Routledge, 1996); P. Weil, 'Nationalities and Citizenships' in Cesarani and Fulbrook, Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe', T. Hammar (ed.), European Immigration Policy: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Baldwin-Edwards and M. A. Schain, 'The politics of immigration', West European Politics: Special Issue, 17, 2 (1994); J. Wrench and J. Solomos (eds), Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford, Berg, 1993); J. Rex and B. Dury (eds), Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Cultural Europe (Aldershot, Avebury, 1994).
11. 5 See D. Cesarani and M. Filbrook (eds), Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe (London, Routledge, 1996); P. Weil, 'Nationalities and Citizenships' in Cesarani and Fulbrook, Citizenship, Nationality and Migration in Europe', T. Hammar (ed.), European Immigration Policy: a Comparative Study (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985); M. Baldwin-Edwards and M. A. Schain, 'The politics of immigration', West European Politics: Special Issue, 17, 2 (1994); J. Wrench and J. Solomos (eds), Racism and Migration in Western Europe (Oxford, Berg, 1993); J. Rex and B. Dury (eds), Ethnic Mobilization in a Multi-Cultural Europe (Aldershot, Avebury, 1994).
12. 6 S. Collinson, Beyond Borders: West European Migration Policy Towards the 21st Century (London, RHA, Wyndham Place Trust, 1993), p. 101.
13. 7 The debate on free movement and borders used to be conducted in crudely dichotomous terms: either as an affirmation of the national state's or a democratic community's right to exclude, or as an open admissions policy and a universal right to transnational movement. But this dichotomy has been persuasively questioned, thereby opening up room for a range of intermediate positions or even for arguments beyond, which could make much difference in practice (See T. Nardin, 'Alternative Ethical Perspectives on Transnational Migration' in R. Goodin and B. Barry (eds), Free Movement (Pennsylvania, Pennyslvania State University Press), pp. 267-78; V. Bader, 'Citizenship and exclusion', Political Theory, 23, 2 (1995), 211-46; B. Parekh, 'Three Theories of Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens (London, IPPR/Rivers Oram Press, 1994), pp. 91-110. Notwithstanding this opportunity for the introduction of more effective arguments to the political game, the debate has now drifted from openness and liberal admission policies to 'legitimate closure', as theorists, with the exception of Goodin and Dummett, seem keen on considering an ever increasing list of 'legitimate' reasons for excluding immigrants; R. E. Goodin, 'Inclusion and exclusion', Archives Europ. de Sociologie, 2 (1996), 343-71; A. Dummett, The Transnational Migration of People Seen from within a Natural Law Perspective' in Goodin and Barry, Free Movement, pp. 169-80.
14. 7 The debate on free movement and borders used to be conducted in crudely dichotomous terms: either as an affirmation of the national state's or a democratic community's right to exclude, or as an open admissions policy and a universal right to transnational movement. But this dichotomy has been persuasively questioned, thereby opening up room for a range of intermediate positions or even for arguments beyond, which could make much difference in practice (See T. Nardin, 'Alternative Ethical Perspectives on Transnational Migration' in R. Goodin and B. Barry (eds), Free Movement (Pennsylvania, Pennyslvania State University Press), pp. 267-78; V. Bader, 'Citizenship and exclusion', Political Theory, 23, 2 (1995), 211-46; B. Parekh, 'Three Theories of Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens (London, IPPR/Rivers Oram Press, 1994), pp. 91-110. Notwithstanding this opportunity for the introduction of more effective arguments to the political game, the debate has now drifted from openness and liberal admission policies to 'legitimate closure', as theorists, with the exception of Goodin and Dummett, seem keen on considering an ever increasing list of 'legitimate' reasons for excluding immigrants; R. E. Goodin, 'Inclusion and exclusion', Archives Europ. de Sociologie, 2 (1996), 343-71; A. Dummett, The Transnational Migration of People Seen from within a Natural Law Perspective' in Goodin and Barry, Free Movement, pp. 169-80.
15. 7 The debate on free movement and borders used to be conducted in crudely dichotomous terms: either as an affirmation of the national state's or a democratic community's right to exclude, or as an open admissions policy and a universal right to transnational movement. But this dichotomy has been persuasively questioned, thereby opening up room for a range of intermediate positions or even for arguments beyond, which could make much difference in practice (See T. Nardin, 'Alternative Ethical Perspectives on Transnational Migration' in R. Goodin and B. Barry (eds), Free Movement (Pennsylvania, Pennyslvania State University Press), pp. 267-78; V. Bader, 'Citizenship and exclusion', Political Theory, 23, 2 (1995), 211-46; B. Parekh, 'Three Theories of Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens (London, IPPR/Rivers Oram Press, 1994), pp. 91-110. Notwithstanding this opportunity for the introduction of more effective arguments to the political game, the debate has now drifted from openness and liberal admission policies to 'legitimate closure', as theorists, with the exception of Goodin and Dummett, seem keen on considering an ever increasing list of 'legitimate' reasons for excluding immigrants; R. E. Goodin, 'Inclusion and exclusion', Archives Europ. de Sociologie, 2 (1996), 343-71; A. Dummett, The Transnational Migration of People Seen from within a Natural Law Perspective' in Goodin and Barry, Free Movement, pp. 169-80.
16. 7 The debate on free movement and borders used to be conducted in crudely dichotomous terms: either as an affirmation of the national state's or a democratic community's right to exclude, or as an open admissions policy and a universal right to transnational movement. But this dichotomy has been persuasively questioned, thereby opening up room for a range of intermediate positions or even for arguments beyond, which could make much difference in practice (See T. Nardin, 'Alternative Ethical Perspectives on Transnational Migration' in R. Goodin and B. Barry (eds), Free Movement (Pennsylvania, Pennyslvania State University Press), pp. 267-78; V. Bader, 'Citizenship and exclusion', Political Theory, 23, 2 (1995), 211-46; B. Parekh, 'Three Theories of Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens (London, IPPR/Rivers Oram Press, 1994), pp. 91-110. Notwithstanding this opportunity for the introduction of more effective arguments to the political game, the debate has now drifted from openness and liberal admission policies to 'legitimate closure', as theorists, with the exception of Goodin and Dummett, seem keen on considering an ever increasing list of 'legitimate' reasons for excluding immigrants; R. E. Goodin, 'Inclusion and exclusion', Archives Europ. de Sociologie, 2 (1996), 343-71; A. Dummett, The Transnational Migration of People Seen from within a Natural Law Perspective' in Goodin and Barry, Free Movement, pp. 169-80.
17. 7 The debate on free movement and borders used to be conducted in crudely dichotomous terms: either as an affirmation of the national state's or a democratic community's right to exclude, or as an open admissions policy and a universal right to transnational movement. But this dichotomy has been persuasively questioned, thereby opening up room for a range of intermediate positions or even for arguments beyond, which could make much difference in practice (See T. Nardin, 'Alternative Ethical Perspectives on Transnational Migration' in R. Goodin and B. Barry (eds), Free Movement (Pennsylvania, Pennyslvania State University Press), pp. 267-78; V. Bader, 'Citizenship and exclusion', Political Theory, 23, 2 (1995), 211-46; B. Parekh, 'Three Theories of Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens (London, IPPR/Rivers Oram Press, 1994), pp. 91-110. Notwithstanding this opportunity for the introduction of more effective arguments to the political game, the debate has now drifted from openness and liberal admission policies to 'legitimate closure', as theorists, with the exception of Goodin and Dummett, seem keen on considering an ever increasing list of 'legitimate' reasons for excluding immigrants; R. E. Goodin, 'Inclusion and exclusion', Archives Europ. de Sociologie, 2 (1996), 343-71; A. Dummett, The Transnational Migration of People Seen from within a Natural Law Perspective' in Goodin and Barry, Free Movement, pp. 169-80.
18. 8 Both Carens and Dummett concede that the right to free movement is not a politically feasible option, but an ideal target, or a critical standard by which to assess existing policies; Carens, 'Migration and Morality', p. 45; Dummett, 'The Transnational Migration of People', p. 179.
19. 8 Both Carens and Dummett concede that the right to free movement is not a politically feasible option, but an ideal target, or a critical standard by which to assess existing policies; Carens, 'Migration and Morality', p. 45; Dummett, 'The Transnational Migration of People', p. 179.
20. 9 The terms are taken from L. Fuller's, The Morality of Law (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1964).
21. 10 Hammar, European Immigration Policy; R. Cohen, The New Helots: Migrants in the International Division of Labour (Farnborough, Avebury, 1987).
22. 10 Hammar, European Immigration Policy; R. Cohen, The New Helots: Migrants in the International Division of Labour (Farnborough, Avebury, 1987).
23. 11 H. J. d'Oliveira, 'Fortress Europe and (Extra-Communitarian) Refugees: Cooperation in Sealing Off the External Borders' in H. Schermers et al. (eds), Free Movement of Persons in Europe (Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, 1993), pp. 166-82, p. 167.
24. 12 Z. L. Henry, The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, 'Race' and 'Race' Relations in Post-war Britain (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994); A. Findlay, 'An Economic Audit of Contemporary Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens, pp. 159-201, p. 168.
25. 12 Z. L. Henry, The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, 'Race' and 'Race' Relations in Post-war Britain (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994); A. Findlay, 'An Economic Audit of Contemporary Immigration' in S. Spencer (ed.), Strangers and Citizens, pp. 159-201, p. 168.
26. 13 T. Bunyan, Towards an authoritarian European state', Race and Class, 32 (1991), 19-24.
27. 14 P.-C. Muller-Graf, 'The legal bases of the Third Pillar and its position in the framework of the Union treaty', Common Market Law Review, 31 (1994), 493-510.
28. 15 D. O'Keeffe, 'The emergence of a European immigration policy', European Law Review, 20 (1995), 20-36; 'Recasting the Third Pillar', Common Market Law Review, 32 (1995), 893-920.
29. 15 D. O'Keeffe, 'The emergence of a European immigration policy', European Law Review, 20 (1995), 20-36; 'Recasting the Third Pillar', Common Market Law Review, 32 (1995), 893-920.
30. 16 J. P. H. Donner, 'Abolition of Border Controls', in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 5-26; P. Boeles, 'Data Exchange, Privacy and Legal Protection Especially Regarding Aliens' in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 52-7; F. Hondius, 'Legal Aspects of the Movement of Persons in Greater Europe', Yearbook of European Law, 10 (Oxford, Clarendon, 1991).
31. 16 J. P. H. Donner, 'Abolition of Border Controls', in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 5-26; P. Boeles, 'Data Exchange, Privacy and Legal Protection Especially Regarding Aliens' in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 52-7; F. Hondius, 'Legal Aspects of the Movement of Persons in Greater Europe', Yearbook of European Law, 10 (Oxford, Clarendon, 1991).
32. 16 J. P. H. Donner, 'Abolition of Border Controls', in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 5-26; P. Boeles, 'Data Exchange, Privacy and Legal Protection Especially Regarding Aliens' in Schermers et al., Free Movement of Persons in Europe, pp. 52-7; F. Hondius, 'Legal Aspects of the Movement of Persons in Greater Europe', Yearbook of European Law, 10 (Oxford, Clarendon, 1991).
33. 17 M. Spencer, States of Injustice (London, Pluto, 1995); H. Storey, 'International Law and Human Rights Obligations' in S. Spencer, Strangers and Citizens; M. den Boer, 'Moving between Bogus and Bona Fide: the Policing of Inclusion and Exclusion in Europe' in Miles and Thranhardt, Migration and European Integration.
34. 17 M. Spencer, States of Injustice (London, Pluto, 1995); H. Storey, 'International Law and Human Rights Obligations' in S. Spencer, Strangers and Citizens; M. den Boer, 'Moving between Bogus and Bona Fide: the Policing of Inclusion and Exclusion in Europe' in Miles and Thranhardt, Migration and European Integration.
35. 17 M. Spencer, States of Injustice (London, Pluto, 1995); H. Storey, 'International Law and Human Rights Obligations' in S. Spencer, Strangers and Citizens; M. den Boer, 'Moving between Bogus and Bona Fide: the Policing of Inclusion and Exclusion in Europe' in Miles and Thranhardt, Migration and European Integration.
36. 18 For an overview of these developments, see R. Wallace, Refugees and Asylum: a Community Perspective (London, Butterworths, 1996). Compare also the EP's Resolution on the Right of Asylum, C99 167, OJ 1987, 12 March 1987.
37. 19 S. Spencer, 'The Implications of Immigration Policy for Race Relations', in S. Spencer, Strangers and Citizens, pp. 306-21, p. 309.
38. 20 Spencer, States of Injustice, p. 121.
39. 21 'Judging the European Union', Justice (October 1996), 21-4.
40. 22 T. Pogge, arguing from the standpoint of institutional cosmopolitanism, has proposed a 'multilayered scheme of sovereignty'; 'Cosmopolitanism and Sovereignty', Ethics, 103 (1992), 48-75.
41. 23 Compare Philippe Schmitter, 'If the Nation-State Were to Wither Away in Europe, What Might Replace It?', ARENA Working Paper, 11 (1995).
42. 24 W. C. Muller and V. Wright, 'Reshaping the state in Western Europe: the limits to retreat', West European Politics, 17 (1994), 1-11. See also N. MacCormick, 'Liberalism, nationalism and the post-sovereign state', Political Studies, XLIV (1996), 553-67.
43. 24 W. C. Muller and V. Wright, 'Reshaping the state in Western Europe: the limits to retreat', West European Politics, 17 (1994), 1-11. See also N. MacCormick, 'Liberalism, nationalism and the post-sovereign state', Political Studies, XLIV (1996), 553-67.
44. 25 Chapter 2.
45. 26 'Judging the European Union', Justice, (October 1996), 21-4.
46. 27 Commission's Communication on Immigration and Asylum COM (94) 23 Final 23 February, 1994.
47. 28 This is the subject of a project financed by the Commission; see O'Keeffe, 'The Emergence of a European Immigration Policy', p. 31.
48. 29 On the principles guiding a European Refugee Policy, see A3-0402/93 EP Resolution O. J. EC NO. C44 106, Wednesday 19 January 1994.
49. 30 S. Williams, 'Sovereignty and accountability in the European Community', The Political Quarterly, 6 (1990), 299-327, pp. 315-7.
50. 31 A. Dummett and A. Nicol, Subjects, Citizens,. Aliens and Others: Nationality and Immigration Law (London, Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1990), p. 155.
51. 32 E. Ferris, Beyond Borders: Refugees, Migrants and Human Rights in the Post-Cold War Era (Geneva, World Council of Churches, 1993).
52. 33 R. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 121-9.
53. 34 M. Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York, Basic, 1983). European football clubs, however, cannot restrict the number of foreign players in national league matches, for nationality clauses contravene Article 48 EC; C-415 93 ASBL v. Bosman [1996] 1 CMLR 645.
54. 35 Walzer's external principle of mutual aid places weak obligations only which may be overridden by citizens' fears that admission of aliens might imperil their existence; Spheres of Justice, pp. 40, 44-5, 47-8.
55. 34 Walzer, Spheres of Justice, pp. 38-9.
56. 37 M. Silverman, 'Citizenship and the nation state in France', Ethnic and Racial Studies, 14, 3 (1991), 339-49, p. 338.
57. 38 Walzer, Spheres of Justice, pp. 38-9.
58. 39 W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, Clarendon, 1995), pp. 84-106. For a critique of Kymlicka's thesis, see D. Lenihan, 'Liberalism and the problem of cultural membership: a critical study of Kymlicka', The Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, IV, No. 2 (July 1991), 401-19; J. Waldron, 'Minority cultures and the cosmopolitan alternative', University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 25 (1992), 751-93.
59. 39 W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, Clarendon, 1995), pp. 84-106. For a critique of Kymlicka's thesis, see D. Lenihan, 'Liberalism and the problem of cultural membership: a critical study of Kymlicka', The Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, IV, No. 2 (July 1991), 401-19; J. Waldron, 'Minority cultures and the cosmopolitan alternative', University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 25 (1992), 751-93.
60. 39 W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship (Oxford, Clarendon, 1995), pp. 84-106. For a critique of Kymlicka's thesis, see D. Lenihan, 'Liberalism and the problem of cultural membership: a critical study of Kymlicka', The Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence, IV, No. 2 (July 1991), 401-19; J. Waldron, 'Minority cultures and the cosmopolitan alternative', University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 25 (1992), 751-93.
61. 40 J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states', European Journal of Philosophy, 1, 2 (1993), 128-54, pp. 149-53.
62. 41 J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states', pp. 139, 144, 147; 'Citizenship and national identity: some reflections on the future of Europe', Praxis International, 12 (1992), 1-19, p. 17.
63. 41 J. Habermas, 'Struggles for recognition in constitutional states', pp. 139, 144, 147; 'Citizenship and national identity: some reflections on the future of Europe', Praxis International, 12 (1992), 1-19, p. 17.
64. 42 For Bader, this may be 'the best and most legitimate argument from a democratic point of view, in a defence of politics of fairly closed borders'; Citizenship and Exclusion, pp. 231-2.
65. 43 K. Karst, Belonging to America (New Haven, Columbia University Press, 1989), p. 29.
66. 44 J. Carens, 'Aliens and citizens: the case for open borders', The Review of Politics, 49 (1987), 251-73 at pp. 259-60. But compare this (p. 260) with his 'Migration and morality: a liberal egalitarian perspective' in Free Movement, pp. 25-47 at pp. 36-40. Baubock defends the right to migrate in the cases of refugees and close family members only; R. Baubock, Transnational Citizenship (Aldershot, Edward Elgar, 1994), p. 318.
67. 44 J. Carens, 'Aliens and citizens: the case for open borders', The Review of Politics, 49 (1987), 251-73 at pp. 259-60. But compare this (p. 260) with his 'Migration and morality: a liberal egalitarian perspective' in Free Movement, pp. 25-47 at pp. 36-40. Baubock defends the right to migrate in the cases of refugees and close family members only; R. Baubock, Transnational Citizenship (Aldershot, Edward Elgar, 1994), p. 318.
68. 44 J. Carens, 'Aliens and citizens: the case for open borders', The Review of Politics, 49 (1987), 251-73 at pp. 259-60. But compare this (p. 260) with his 'Migration and morality: a liberal egalitarian perspective' in Free Movement, pp. 25-47 at pp. 36-40. Baubock defends the right to migrate in the cases of refugees and close family members only; R. Baubock, Transnational Citizenship (Aldershot, Edward Elgar, 1994), p. 318.
69. 45 Carens, 'Migration and morality', pp. 37-8.
70. 46 A. Dummett and A. Nicol, Subjects, Citizens, Aliens and others: Nationality and Immigration Law, p. 279.
71. 47 Carens, 'Migration and morality', pp. 37-8.
72. 48 I have discussed this in 'Towards a theory of constructive citizenship in Europe', The Journal of Political Philosophy, 4, 4 (1996), 337-58.
73. 49 See R. Baubock, Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship (Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1992), pp. 121-2; 'Legitimate Immigration Control' in H. Adelman (ed.), Legitimate and Illegitimate Discrimination: New Issues in Migration (Toronto, York Lanes Press, 1995), pp. 3-40.
74. 49 See R. Baubock, Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship (Warwick, Centre for Research in Ethnic Relations, 1992), pp. 121-2; 'Legitimate Immigration Control' in H. Adelman (ed.), Legitimate and Illegitimate Discrimination: New Issues in Migration (Toronto, York Lanes Press, 1995), pp. 3-40.
75. 50 For the opposite claim that the realization of redistributive justice depends upon the affective ties and bonds of co-nationals, see D. Miller, 'In defence of nationality', Journal of Applied Philosophy, 10 (1993), 7-8; Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 118.
76. 50 For the opposite claim that the realization of redistributive justice depends upon the affective ties and bonds of co-nationals, see D. Miller, 'In defence of nationality', Journal of Applied Philosophy, 10 (1993), 7-8; Yael Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 118.
77. 51 A. Findlay, 'An Economic Audit', pp. 186, 200-1.
78. 52 See G. Borjas, 'Immigrant participation in the welfare system', Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 44 (1991), 195-211; Julian Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration (Oxford, Blackwell, 1989).
79. 52 See G. Borjas, 'Immigrant participation in the welfare system', Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 44 (1991), 195-211; Julian Simon, The Economic Consequences of Immigration (Oxford, Blackwell, 1989).
80. 53 K. Butcher and D. Card, 'Immigration and wages: evidence from the 1980s', The American Economic Review, 81 (1991), 292-6.