Dividing social citizenship by gender: The implementation of unemployment insurance and aid to dependent children, 1935-1950

Studies in American Political Development

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 303-342

  Mettler, Suzanne ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0032279043     PISSN: 0898588X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0898588x98001552     Document Type: Article

References (227)

1. This depiction is commonplace; for a recent example of its use, see Diane Sainsbury, Gender Equality and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 28-29. It seems to have originated in Nancy Fraser, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse, and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 144-60 and Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 123-51.
2. This depiction is commonplace; for a recent example of its use, see Diane Sainsbury, Gender Equality and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 28-29. It seems to have originated in Nancy Fraser, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse, and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 144-60 and Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 123-51.
3. This depiction is commonplace; for a recent example of its use, see Diane Sainsbury, Gender Equality and Welfare States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 28-29. It seems to have originated in Nancy Fraser, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse, and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989), 144-60 and Barbara J. Nelson, "The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen's Compensation and Mothers' Aid," in Women, the State, and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 123-51.
4. For example, see Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 253-85; also Fraser, Unruly Practices, 149-53.
5. For example, see Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935 (New York: Free Press, 1994), 253-85; also Fraser, Unruly Practices, 149-53.
6. U.S., Social Security Board (SSB), Social Security In America: The Factual Background of the Social Security Act as Summarized from Staff Reports to the Committee on Economic Security (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1937), 6; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 192-95. For an examination of the factors that were beginning to lead to the successful enactment of unemployment compensation at the state level, see Edwin Amenta, et al., "The Political Origins of Unemployment Insurance in Five American States," Studies in American Political Development 2 (1987): 137-82.
7. U.S., Social Security Board (SSB), Social Security In America: The Factual Background of the Social Security Act as Summarized from Staff Reports to the Committee on Economic Security (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1937), 6; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 192-95. For an examination of the factors that were beginning to lead to the successful enactment of unemployment compensation at the state level, see Edwin Amenta, et al., "The Political Origins of Unemployment Insurance in Five American States," Studies in American Political Development 2 (1987): 137-82.
8. U.S., Social Security Board (SSB), Social Security In America: The Factual Background of the Social Security Act as Summarized from Staff Reports to the Committee on Economic Security (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1937), 6; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 192-95. For an examination of the factors that were beginning to lead to the successful enactment of unemployment compensation at the state level, see Edwin Amenta, et al., "The Political Origins of Unemployment Insurance in Five American States," Studies in American Political Development 2 (1987): 137-82.
9. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 37-64; Gwendolyn Mink, The Wages of Matherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917-1942 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 27-52.
10. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 37-64; Gwendolyn Mink, The Wages of Matherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917-1942 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), 27-52.
11. Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, January 10, 1935, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 4, University of Chicago, Regenstein Library (hereafter, UC); Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, October 13, 1934, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 3, UC; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, Oral History Collection, Columbia University (hereafter, OHC), 25, 33; SSB, Social Security in America, 233, 248, 288-89.
12. Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, January 10, 1935, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 4, University of Chicago, Regenstein Library (hereafter, UC); Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, October 13, 1934, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 3, UC; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, Oral History Collection, Columbia University (hereafter, OHC), 25, 33; SSB, Social Security in America, 233, 248, 288-89.
13. Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, January 10, 1935, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 4, University of Chicago, Regenstein Library (hereafter, UC); Katherine Lenroot to Grace Abbott, letter, October 13, 1934, Abbott Papers, box 61, folder 3, UC; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, Oral History Collection, Columbia University (hereafter, OHC), 25, 33; SSB, Social Security in America, 233, 248, 288-89.
14. By "social citizenship," I mean the dimension of citizenship rights and obligations that involve access to economic security and welfare. See T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship and Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 65-122; Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1991); Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 64-94. Also see Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 303-28.
15. By "social citizenship," I mean the dimension of citizenship rights and obligations that involve access to economic security and welfare. See T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship and Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 65-122; Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1991); Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 64-94. Also see Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 303-28.
16. By "social citizenship," I mean the dimension of citizenship rights and obligations that involve access to economic security and welfare. See T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship and Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 65-122; Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1991); Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 64-94. Also see Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 303-28.
17. By "social citizenship," I mean the dimension of citizenship rights and obligations that involve access to economic security and welfare. See T. H. Marshall, "Citizenship and Social Class," in Class, Citizenship and Social Development (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 65-122; Judith Shklar, American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press, 1991); Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 64-94. Also see Ann Shola Orloff, "Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 303-28.
18. Another institutional analysis of the "formative years" of ADC has been conducted by Nancy K. Cauthen and Edwin Amenta, "Not for Widows Only: Institutional Politics and the Formative Years of Aid to Dependent Children," American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 427-48.
19. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 253-85; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathyrn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Caroline Press, 1995), 87-106.
20. Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 253-85; Alice Kessler-Harris, "Designing Women and Old Fools: The Construction of the Social Security Amendments of 1939," in U.S. History as Women's History, ed. Linda Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathyrn Kish Sklar (Chapel Hill: University of North Caroline Press, 1995), 87-106.
21. Helen Ingram and Anne Schneider, "Constructing Citizenship: The Subtle Message of Policy Design," in Public Policy for Democracy (Washington, D.C. Brookings Institution, 1993), 68-94. For a challenge to their analysis, see Robert Lieberman, "Social Construction (Continued), and Helen Ingram and Anne L. Schneider, "Response," American Political Science Review 89 (1995): 437-46.
22. Helen Ingram and Anne Schneider, "Constructing Citizenship: The Subtle Message of Policy Design," in Public Policy for Democracy (Washington, D.C. Brookings Institution, 1993), 68-94. For a challenge to their analysis, see Robert Lieberman, "Social Construction (Continued), and Helen Ingram and Anne L. Schneider, "Response," American Political Science Review 89 (1995): 437-46.
23. This point is also made in Christopher Howard, "Sowing the Seeds of 'Welfare': The Transformation of Mothers' Pensions, 1900-1940," Journal of Policy History 4 (1992): 188-227.
24. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
25. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
26. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
27. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
28. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
29. See Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992); Theda Skocpol and John Ikenberry, "The Political Formation of the American Welfare State in Historical and Comparative Perspective," Comparative Social Research 6 (1983): 87-148; Theda Skocpol and Kenneth Finegold, "State Capacity and Economic Intervention in the Early New Deal," Political Science Quarterly 97 (1982): 255-78; Ann Shola Orloff, "The Political Origins of America's Belated Welfare State," in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 37-80; Ann Shola Orloff, The Politics of Pensions (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993); Theda Skocpol and Edwin Amenta, "Did Capitalists Shape Social Security," American Sociological Review 50 (1985): 572-75.
30. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 41-60; Orloff, The Politics of Pensions. 13. Paul Pierson, "When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Changes," World Politics 45 (July 1993): 595-628.
31. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 41-60; Orloff, The Politics of Pensions. 13. Paul Pierson, "When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Changes," World Politics 45 (July 1993): 595-628.
32. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 41-60; Orloff, The Politics of Pensions. 13. Paul Pierson, "When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Changes," World Politics 45 (July 1993): 595-628.
33. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressures and the Tariff (New York: Prentice Hall, 1935); Theodore J. Lowi, "American Business, Public Policy, Case Studies, and Political Theory," World Politics 16 (1964): 677-715.
34. E. E. Schattschneider, Politics, Pressures and the Tariff (New York: Prentice Hall, 1935); Theodore J. Lowi, "American Business, Public Policy, Case Studies, and Political Theory," World Politics 16 (1964): 677-715.
35. For several examples, see essays collected in Helen Ingram and Steven Rathgeb Smith, eds., Public Policy for Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993).
36. Jack L. Walker, "The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States," American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 880-99; Samuel H. Beer, "Federalism, Nationalism, and Democracy in America," American Political Science Review 72 (1978): 9-21; David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Penguin, 1993), 49-75, 250-279.
37. Jack L. Walker, "The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States," American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 880-99; Samuel H. Beer, "Federalism, Nationalism, and Democracy in America," American Political Science Review 72 (1978): 9-21; David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Penguin, 1993), 49-75, 250-279.
38. Jack L. Walker, "The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States," American Political Science Review 63 (1969): 880-99; Samuel H. Beer, "Federalism, Nationalism, and Democracy in America," American Political Science Review 72 (1978): 9-21; David Osborne and Ted Gaebler, Reinventing Government (New York: Penguin, 1993), 49-75, 250-279.
39. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960), 1-19; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1966), 3-8, 91-118, 166-195.
40. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960), 1-19; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1966), 3-8, 91-118, 166-195.
41. Paul E. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); Paul E. Peterson and Mark C. Rom, Welfare Magnets: A New Case for a National Standard (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990).
42. Paul E. Peterson, City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); Paul E. Peterson and Mark C. Rom, Welfare Magnets: A New Case for a National Standard (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990).
43. Theodore J. Lowi, Benjamin Ginsberg, et al., Poliscide (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1990), 27-28.
44. Jeffrey L. Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
45. See Russell L. Hanson, "Federal Statebuilding During the New Deal: The Transition from Mothers' Aid to Aid to Dependent Children," in Changes in the State, ed. Edward S. Greenberg and Thomas F. Mayer (Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990), 93-114.
46. For classic treatments of the "politics of bureaucracy," see James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Martha Derthick, Agency Under Stress (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990); Terry M. Moe, "The Politics of Bureaucratic Structure," in Can the Government Govern?, ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1989), 267-89.
47. For classic treatments of the "politics of bureaucracy," see James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Martha Derthick, Agency Under Stress (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990); Terry M. Moe, "The Politics of Bureaucratic Structure," in Can the Government Govern?, ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1989), 267-89.
48. For classic treatments of the "politics of bureaucracy," see James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, 1989); Martha Derthick, Agency Under Stress (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1990); Terry M. Moe, "The Politics of Bureaucratic Structure," in Can the Government Govern?, ed. John E. Chubb and Paul E. Peterson (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1989), 267-89.
49. Regarding similar efforts over OAI, see Brian Balogh, "Securing Support: The Emergence of the Social Security Board as a Political Actor, 1935-1939," in Federal Social Policy, ed. Donald T. Critchlow and Ellis W. Hawley, (University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1988), 55-78.
50. Kenneth Casebeer, "The Workers' Unemployment Insurance Bill: American Social Wage, Labor Organization and Legal Ideology," in Labor Law in America, ed. Christopher Tomlins and Andrew King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Also, some officials within the Roosevelt Administration urged the adoption of federally-financed permanent relief programs. Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Harper & Row, 1946), 284-85.
51. Kenneth Casebeer, "The Workers' Unemployment Insurance Bill: American Social Wage, Labor Organization and Legal Ideology," in Labor Law in America, ed. Christopher Tomlins and Andrew King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992). Also, some officials within the Roosevelt Administration urged the adoption of federally-financed permanent relief programs. Frances Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Harper & Row, 1946), 284-85.
52. Franklin D. Roosevelt, "Message to Congress Reviewing the Broad Objectives and Accomplishments of the Administration, June 8, 1934," in the Report of the Committee on Economic Security of 1935 and Other Basic Documents Relation to the Development of the Social Security Act, ed. National Conference on Social Welfare, (Washington, D.C.: National Conference on Social Welfare, 1985, Fiftieth Anniversary ed.), 138.
53. For a full treatment of the formation of these programs, see Suzanne Mettler, Dividing Citizens: Gender and Federalism in New Deal Public Policy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998).
54. Edwin Witte, Development of the Social Security Act (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 50-66, 125, 132-42; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 289-91; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "The Negro Woman Worker," by Jean Collier Brown, Bulletin No, 165, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1938), 2-3.
55. Edwin Witte, Development of the Social Security Act (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 50-66, 125, 132-42; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 289-91; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "The Negro Woman Worker," by Jean Collier Brown, Bulletin No, 165, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1938), 2-3.
56. Edwin Witte, Development of the Social Security Act (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963), 50-66, 125, 132-42; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 289-91; U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "The Negro Woman Worker," by Jean Collier Brown, Bulletin No, 165, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1938), 2-3.
57. Lenroot to Abbott, January 10, 1935; Katharine Lenroot, "Aid to Dependent Children," in SSB, Social Security in America, 248; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, OHC, 25, 33; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions for Development of a Children's Program as Part of a Federal Security Program," 3, Abbott Papers, box 61, file 3, UC.
58. Lenroot to Abbott, January 10, 1935; Katharine Lenroot, "Aid to Dependent Children," in SSB, Social Security in America, 248; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, OHC, 25, 33; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions for Development of a Children's Program as Part of a Federal Security Program," 3, Abbott Papers, box 61, file 3, UC.
59. Lenroot to Abbott, January 10, 1935; Katharine Lenroot, "Aid to Dependent Children," in SSB, Social Security in America, 248; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, OHC, 25, 33; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions for Development of a Children's Program as Part of a Federal Security Program," 3, Abbott Papers, box 61, file 3, UC.
60. Lenroot to Abbott, January 10, 1935; Katharine Lenroot, "Aid to Dependent Children," in SSB, Social Security in America, 248; Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, OHC, 25, 33; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions for Development of a Children's Program as Part of a Federal Security Program," 3, Abbott Papers, box 61, file 3, UC.
61. Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, 99, 107-11; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions," 2, 4; Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 102, 257.
62. Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, 99, 107-11; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions," 2, 4; Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 102, 257.
63. Reminiscences of Katharine Lenroot, 99, 107-11; Katharine Lenroot, "Preliminary and Confidential Suggestions," 2, 4; Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled, 102, 257.
64. Grace Abbott, From Relief to Social Security (New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), 279-81; Witte, Development of the Social Security Act, 164.
65. Grace Abbott, From Relief to Social Security (New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), 279-81; Witte, Development of the Social Security Act, 164.
66. Arthur J, Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), 35-36; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 300-301; Paul H. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 2d ed. (New York: Whittlesey House, 1939), 106-7.
67. Arthur J, Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), 35-36; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 300-301; Paul H. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 2d ed. (New York: Whittlesey House, 1939), 106-7.
68. Arthur J, Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1968), 35-36; Perkins, The Roosevelt I Knew, 300-301; Paul H. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 2d ed. (New York: Whittlesey House, 1939), 106-7.
69. Eveline M. Burns, Toward Social Security (New York: Whittlesey House, 1936), 55-56; John G. Turnbull, C. Arthur Williams, Jr., and Earl F. Cheit, Economic and Social Security, 3d ed. (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1967), 248.
70. Eveline M. Burns, Toward Social Security (New York: Whittlesey House, 1936), 55-56; John G. Turnbull, C. Arthur Williams, Jr., and Earl F. Cheit, Economic and Social Security, 3d ed. (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1967), 248.
71. For example, Arthur Altmeyer, Wilbur Cohen, and Thomas Eliot were involved in both the formation and implementation of the law. See Edward D. Berkowitz, Mr. Social Security: The Life of Wilbur Cohen (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).
72. Charles McKinley and Robert W. Frase, Launching Social Security: A Capture-and-Record Account, 1935-1931 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), 250; Edwin E. Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," The Yale Law Journal 1 (December 1945): 33.
73. Charles McKinley and Robert W. Frase, Launching Social Security: A Capture-and-Record Account, 1935-1931 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), 250; Edwin E. Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," The Yale Law Journal 1 (December 1945): 33.
74. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 250; Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 335-36.
75. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 250; Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 335-36.
76. Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 34.
77. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 243-51; Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 34.
78. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 243-51; Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 34.
79. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 308-10, 400; Burns, Toward Social Security, 69-70.
80. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 308-10, 400; Burns, Toward Social Security, 69-70.
81. Witte, "The Development of Unemployment Compensation," 33-34; Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 399-400. Once bills were enacted, the SSB issued specific guidelines to states detailing the appropriate administrative apparatus for implementing the policy and detailed recommendations about budgeting. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 263-71, 284-94.
82. Witte, "The Development of Unemployment Compensation," 33-34; Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 399-400. Once bills were enacted, the SSB issued specific guidelines to states detailing the appropriate administrative apparatus for implementing the policy and detailed recommendations about budgeting. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 263-71, 284-94.
83. Witte, "The Development of Unemployment Compensation," 33-34; Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 399-400. Once bills were enacted, the SSB issued specific guidelines to states detailing the appropriate administrative apparatus for implementing the policy and detailed recommendations about budgeting. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 263-71, 284-94.
84. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 263.
85. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 84-85.
86. Ibid., 124; Brian Balogh, "Securing Support," 55-78.
87. Ibid., 124; Brian Balogh, "Securing Support," 55-78.
88. Katherine Pollak Ellickson, "Labor's Demand for Real Employment Security," Yale Law Journal 55 (1945): 253-63.
89. "Twenty Years of Unemployment Insurance in the U.S.A., 1935-1955," Employment Security Review, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1955), 32-33; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 85.
90. "Twenty Years of Unemployment Insurance in the U.S.A., 1935-1955," Employment Security Review, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1955), 32-33; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 85.
91. Ellickson, "Labor's Demand for Real Employment Security," 255-56.
92. Witte, "The Development of Unemployment Compensation," 46-47.
93. For a thorough examination of the United State Employment Services during this period, see Desmond King, Actively Seeking Work?: The Politics of Unemployment and Welfare Policy in the United States and Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).
94. See all Contents of: SSB, Records of the Executive Director, 1941-8, box 283, file 500, "Federalization of UI," also box 285, file 520, "January 1941-3," and "December 1941. . . Federalization," Records of the Social Security Administration, (hereafter, RG 47), National Archives, Washington, DC (hereafter, NA); Official File 1710, box 2, "SSB 1941" and "SSB, 1943-5," Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y., (hereafter, FDR).
95. William Green to Franklin D. Roosevelt, letter, October 26, 1942, Official File of 1710, Box 2, "SSB, 1942," FDR.
96. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 132-37; Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 48-49; A. J. Altmeyer to the President, memo, December 29, 1942, Material on Social Security for Inclusion in Annual Message to Congress," President's Secretary's File, (hereafter, PSF) box 165, "Social Security," FDR.
97. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 132-37; Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 48-49; A. J. Altmeyer to the President, memo, December 29, 1942, Material on Social Security for Inclusion in Annual Message to Congress," President's Secretary's File, (hereafter, PSF) box 165, "Social Security," FDR.
98. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 132-37; Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 48-49; A. J. Altmeyer to the President, memo, December 29, 1942, Material on Social Security for Inclusion in Annual Message to Congress," President's Secretary's File, (hereafter, PSF) box 165, "Social Security," FDR.
99. National Resources Planning Board, "National Resources Development, Report for 1943," 17, PSF, box 165, "Social Security," FDR.
100. William Haber and Merrill G. Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy (Homewood, III. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1966), 439; Linda R. Wolf Jones, Eveline M. Burns and the American Social, Security System, 1935-1960 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991), 97-109.
101. William Haber and Merrill G. Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy (Homewood, III. Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1966), 439; Linda R. Wolf Jones, Eveline M. Burns and the American Social, Security System, 1935-1960 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991), 97-109.
102. Meanwhile, some of the proposals in the NRPB report were narrowed in application to returning veterans and were incorporated in the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, otherwise known as the G.I. Bill of Rights. The law left the structure of UI intact, but permitted veterans $20 week for up to fifty-two weeks of unemployment, compared to varying benefit levels from state to state for twenty-six weeks or less. Ellickson, "Labor's Demand for Real Employment Security," 255; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 148-49.
103. Meanwhile, some of the proposals in the NRPB report were narrowed in application to returning veterans and were incorporated in the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, otherwise known as the G.I. Bill of Rights. The law left the structure of UI intact, but permitted veterans $20 week for up to fifty-two weeks of unemployment, compared to varying benefit levels from state to state for twenty-six weeks or less. Ellickson, "Labor's Demand for Real Employment Security," 255; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 148-49.
104. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 440; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 146; Report of the Conference Workshop of Organized Labor on Employment Security, Labor Looks at Unemployment Insurance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 25-26.
105. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 440; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 146; Report of the Conference Workshop of Organized Labor on Employment Security, Labor Looks at Unemployment Insurance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 25-26.
106. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 440; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 146; Report of the Conference Workshop of Organized Labor on Employment Security, Labor Looks at Unemployment Insurance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946), 25-26.
107. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 161.
108. Harpham, "Unemployment Insurance in the United States," 162-78.
109. Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 39-40; Joseph M. Becker, "Twenty-Five Years of Unemployment Insurance," Political Science Quarterly 25 (1960): 489, 498.
110. Witte, "Development of Unemployment Compensation," 39-40; Joseph M. Becker, "Twenty-Five Years of Unemployment Insurance," Political Science Quarterly 25 (1960): 489, 498.
111. Joseph M, Becker, "The Adequacy of Benefits in Unemployment Insurance" in In Aid of the Unemployed, ed. Joseph M. Becker, (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), 94-96.
112. SSB, Social Security Yearbook, 1945, 116-19.
113. Social Security Board (hereafter, SSB), "Trends in Unemployment Insurance Coverage and Benefit Legislation," by Ruth Reticker, Social Security Bulletin 12 (1949): 11.
114. SSB, Social Security in America, 11-12.
115. Mary Anderson, "Old Age Security Legislation from the Viewpoint of Women," address before District of Columbia League of Women Voters, December 1935, Department of Labor, Women's Bureau Collection at the Labor-Management Documentation Center, Catherwood Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. (hereafter, LMDC), microfilm reel 16:0133.
116. SSB, "Trends in Disqualification from Benefits Under State Unemployment Compensation Laws," by Ewan Clague and Ruth Reticker, Social Security Bulletin 7 (1944): 12.
117. SSB, "Trends in Disqualification," 12-23; Harpham, "Unemployment Insurance in the United States," 161; Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 330.
118. SSB, "Trends in Disqualification," 12-23; Harpham, "Unemployment Insurance in the United States," 161; Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 330.
119. SSB, "Trends in Disqualification," 12-23; Harpham, "Unemployment Insurance in the United States," 161; Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 330.
120. SSB, Social Security Yearbook, (Washington, D.C.: Social Security Board, 1939), 104-5.
121. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1940, The Labor Force (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1940), vol. III, 3, table 1 and 12, table VII.
122. Turnbull, Williams and Cheit, Economic and Social Security, 252-4; Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy From Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 293-94.
123. Turnbull, Williams and Cheit, Economic and Social Security, 252-4; Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy From Colonial Times to the Present (Boston: South End Press, 1988), 293-94.
124. Lewis Meriam, Relief and Social Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1946), 213-14.
125. Public Law 271, Social Security Act of 1935, Title IX, Sec. 903, (a) (5).
126. Although the numbers of organized women grew after the enactment of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 and the emergence of the Congress of Industrial Organizations, still in 1940, women workers, who composed one-quarter of the workforce, accounted for only 9.4 percent of all union members. For the next two decades, male workers were twice as likely as women workers to join unions. See Gladys Dickason, "Women in Labor Unions," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 251 (May 1947): 71; Francine D. Blau and Marianne A. Ferber, The Economics of Women, Men, and Work (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1986), 273.
127. Although the numbers of organized women grew after the enactment of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 and the emergence of the Congress of Industrial Organizations, still in 1940, women workers, who composed one-quarter of the workforce, accounted for only 9.4 percent of all union members. For the next two decades, male workers were twice as likely as women workers to join unions. See Gladys Dickason, "Women in Labor Unions," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 251 (May 1947): 71; Francine D. Blau and Marianne A. Ferber, The Economics of Women, Men, and Work (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1986), 273.
128. These provisions are discussed at length in SSB, Social Security Yearbook, 1940, 41-44.
129. U.S., Bureau of the Census, Census of the Population: 1940, Summary Report, (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1940), Tables 58 and 72, 75-80, 120-22.
130. SSB, "Trends in Disqualification," 18-21.
131. SSB, Social Security Yearbook, 38, also 46.
132. Benefit Series 7778, Delaware R., vol. 6, no. 2, as quoted in Social Security Board, "Trends in Disqualification," 18.
133. Ibid., 18-19; Gladys Harrison, et al., "Eligibility and Disqualification for Benefits," Yale Law Journal 55 (1945): 120.
134. Ibid., 18-19; Gladys Harrison, et al., "Eligibility and Disqualification for Benefits," Yale Law Journal 55 (1945): 120.
135. See sections on "Employment Security" or "Unemployment Insurance" in annual editions of Social Security Board/Administration, Social Security Yearbook, (Washington, D.C.: Social Security Board/Administration).
136. See testimony in favor of the amendment submitted to Congress, House, Ways and Means Committee, by Frieda S. Miller, Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, April 15, 1949, in National Women's Trade Union League papers, LMDC.
137. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 118-19.
138. The period of disqualification ranged from four weeks before and after childbirth (Massachusetts) to three months before and after childbirth (Alabama and North Carolina). Social Security Yearbook, 1945, 125-27.
139. Teicher Unemployment Comp. Case, 154 Pa. Super. 250, 35 A. (2d) 739 (1944), quoted in Harrison, et al., "Eligibility and Disqualification," 159.
140. SSB, Social Security Yearbook, 1940, 54-55.
141. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance in the American Economy, 271.
142. SSB, "Dependents in Social Security Systems of Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, and Canada," by Elva Marquard, Social Security Bulletin 11 (1948): 9.
143. SSB, "Dependents' Allowances Under State Unemployment Insurance Laws," by Olga S. Halsey in Social Security Bulletin 14 (1951): 4.
144. Abbott, From Relief to Social Security, 282-83.
145. See John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, and David Brody, The New Deal: The State and Local Levels, Vol. II (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1975), 332.
146. Howard, "Sowing the Seeds of 'Welfare'," 215.
147. Douglas, Social Security in America, 358.
148. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 85.
149. George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 490-91; Braeman, Bremner, and Brody, eds. The New Deal: The State and Local Levels, 184, 286, 365.
150. George Brown Tindall, The Emergence of the New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967), 490-91; Braeman, Bremner, and Brody, eds. The New Deal: The State and Local Levels, 184, 286, 365.
151. Douglas, Social Security in the United States, 428.
152. Altmeyer, Formative years of Social Security, 80-82; Marcia Dancey, "Mothers Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," The Social Service Review, 3 (1939): 643-44; Martha Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), 80.
153. Altmeyer, Formative years of Social Security, 80-82; Marcia Dancey, "Mothers Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," The Social Service Review, 3 (1939): 643-44; Martha Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), 80.
154. Altmeyer, Formative years of Social Security, 80-82; Marcia Dancey, "Mothers Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," The Social Service Review, 3 (1939): 643-44; Martha Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), 80.
155. Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 59.
156. Blanche D. Coll, "Public Assistance: Reviving the Original Comprehensive Concept of Social Security," in Social Security: The First Half-Century, ed. Gerald D. Nash, Noel H. Pugach, and Richard F. Tomasson, (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988), 231.
157. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 144, also see 140-45.
158. Quoted in Jerry Cates, Insuring Inequality: Administrative Leadership in Social Security, 1935-1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983), 133.
159. Whereas Jerry Cates sees a long-term effort by the SSB/SSA to limit and restrict public assistance, neither my own research in agency records nor Blanche Coll's work bear out his interpretation. As early as 1939, the SSB began to argue that the grant-in-aid public assistance programs should feature variable grants for states. The SSB's greater attention to OAI and UI than OAA and ADC reflects administrative politics in the context of American federalism, rather than antipathy toward public assistance per se. See Jerry Cates, Insuring Inequality, and Blanche D. Coll, Safety Net (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
160. Whereas Jerry Cates sees a long-term effort by the SSB/SSA to limit and restrict public assistance, neither my own research in agency records nor Blanche Coll's work bear out his interpretation. As early as 1939, the SSB began to argue that the grant-in-aid public assistance programs should feature variable grants for states. The SSB's greater attention to OAI and UI than OAA and ADC reflects administrative politics in the context of American federalism, rather than antipathy toward public assistance per se. See Jerry Cates, Insuring Inequality, and Blanche D. Coll, Safety Net (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1995).
161. For a general overview of administrative development and organizational forms in public welfare agencies at the state level during the 1930s, see Marietta Stevenson, "Public Welfare, State and Local Agencies," Social Work Yearbook, 1937 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1937), 392-403.
162. Sophonisba Breckinridge to Mr. Altmeyer, letter, December 13, 1935, SSB, box 19, file 631, RG 47, NA; Office of the General Counsel and the BPA to Mr. A. J. Altmeyer, memo, October 12, 1936, "Re: Court Participation in Public Assistance Administration," SSB, Chairman's Files, Subject Files, 1935-40, box 93, file 631, RG 47, NA.
163. Joseph Meyers to Wilbur Cohen, memo, December 3, 1936, SSB, Chairman's Files, Subject Files, 1935-40, box 92, file 620, RG 47, NA.
164. Dancey, "Mothers' Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," 640-41; Illinois, Dept. of Public Welfare, An Appraisal of ADC in Illinois, 2.
165. Dancey, "Mothers' Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," 640-41; Illinois, Dept. of Public Welfare, An Appraisal of ADC in Illinois, 2.
166. In many states, the implementation of the popular OAA program occupied the same administrators who were charged with responsibility for ADC. Though in some ways OAA served as a vehicle for lifting standards for public assistance in general and thus promoting the lower-status ADC program, the program for the elderly jeopardized the program for children since the maiching-grant formula of the former made it more attractive to states. See Hanson, "Federal Statebuilding During the New Deal," 105-8, and Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 54-57, 80-81.
167. In many states, the implementation of the popular OAA program occupied the same administrators who were charged with responsibility for ADC. Though in some ways OAA served as a vehicle for lifting standards for public assistance in general and thus promoting the lower-status ADC program, the program for the elderly jeopardized the program for children since the maiching-grant formula of the former made it more attractive to states. See Hanson, "Federal Statebuilding During the New Deal," 105-8, and Derthick, The Influence of
168. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 37-38; Hoey, "Some Administrative Problems in State Assistance Programs," 4; Derthick, The Influence, of Federal Grants, 79-80; McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 156. On the development of the merit system, see Patricia Wallace Ingrahain, The Foundation of Merit: Public Service in American Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
169. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 37-38; Hoey, "Some Administrative Problems in State Assistance Programs," 4; Derthick, The Influence, of Federal Grants, 79-80; McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 156. On the development of the merit system, see Patricia Wallace Ingrahain, The Foundation of Merit: Public Service in American Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
170. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 37-38; Hoey, "Some Administrative Problems in State Assistance Programs," 4; Derthick, The Influence, of Federal Grants, 79-80; McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 156. On the development of the merit system, see Patricia Wallace Ingrahain, The Foundation of Merit: Public Service in American Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
171. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 37-38; Hoey, "Some Administrative Problems in State Assistance Programs," 4; Derthick, The Influence, of Federal Grants, 79-80; McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 156. On the development of the merit system, see Patricia Wallace Ingrahain, The Foundation of Merit: Public Service in American Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
172. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 37-38; Hoey, "Some Administrative Problems in State Assistance Programs," 4; Derthick, The Influence, of Federal Grants, 79-80; McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 156. On the development of the merit system, see Patricia Wallace Ingrahain, The Foundation of Merit: Public Service in American Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
173. McKinley and Frase, Launching Social Security, 194-97.
174. Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 84-87; Dancey, "Mothers' Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," 647-49.
175. Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 84-87; Dancey, "Mothers' Pensions and the Aid to Dependent Children Program in Michigan," 647-49.
176. Louise McGuire, "Compilation of Material on Aid to Dependent Children," December?, 1938, 19, SSB, Records of the Executive Director, Subject Files, 1935-40, box 273, file 600, RG 47, NA.
177. Ibid., 21.
178. A. G. Thomas to Francis A. Staten, memo, February 2, 1939, "County Reports of Administration of Public Assistance Programs," SSB, Records of the Executive Director, Subject Files, box 274, file 620.6/1940, RG 47, NA.
179. McGuire, "Compilation of Material on Aid to Dependent Children," 26-27.
180. Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, chap. 8.
181. Robert Huse to Mr. W. L. Mitchell, memo, May 15, 1939, "Background Information for a Conference on Public Relations Problems of State Public Assistance Agencies;" and Lavinia Engle to Mr. Huse, memo, March 5, 1937, "Re: State Conferences," both in SSB, Records of the Executive Director, Subject Files, 1935-40, box 274, file 620, RG 47, NA.
182. Wilbur J. Cohen to Arthur J. Altmeyer, memo, November 28, 1938, "Reasons for Dependency: Aid to Dependent Children," SSB, Chairman's Files, Subject Files, box 92, file 600.03, RG 47, NA.
183. "1937-1938 Advisory Council on Social Security: Final Report," in The Report of the Committee on Economic Security of 1935 and Other Basic Documents Relating to the Development of the Social Security Act, 173-204, see esp. 191-93.
184. On the merit system see Reminiscences of Bernice Bernstein, OHC, 87-88; Reminiscences of Frank Bane, OHC, 207; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 104-5.
185. On the merit system see Reminiscences of Bernice Bernstein, OHC, 87-88; Reminiscences of Frank Bane, OHC, 207; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 104-5.
186. On the merit system see Reminiscences of Bernice Bernstein, OHC, 87-88; Reminiscences of Frank Bane, OHC, 207; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 104-5.
187. Public Law 379, Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Title IV, Sec. 401 (b) and 403 (a); Merriam, Relief and Social Security, 53; Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 47.
188. Public Law 379, Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Title IV, Sec. 401 (b) and 403 (a); Merriam, Relief and Social Security, 53; Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 47.
189. Public Law 379, Social Security Act Amendments of 1939, Title IV, Sec. 401 (b) and 403 (a); Merriam, Relief and Social Security, 53; Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 47.
190. Social Security Administration, "Merit System Objectives and Realities," by Albert H. Aronson in Social Security Bulletin 13 (1950): 3-19.
191. Reminiscences of Katherine Lenroot, OHC, 108-11.
192. SSB, Bureau of Public Assistance, Families Receiving Aid to Dependent Chiledren, by Agnes Leisy, October 1942, pt. I, Public Assistance Report No. 7, (Washington, D.C.: Social Security Board, Bureau of Public Assistance, 1943), 3-5. No data was available regarding the proportion of non-whites denied ADC benefits in Utah.
193. Ibid., 15-18.
194. Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1965), 80-81.
195. Social Security Administration, "'Suitable Home' Provisions of State Plans for Aid to Dependent Children," in Social Security Bulletin, 8 (1945): 19-21. Reminiscences of Dean Jack B. Tate, OHC, 10-11, 72-73; Reminiscences of Jane Hoey, OHC, 42.
196. Social Security Administration, "'Suitable Home' Provisions of State Plans for Aid to Dependent Children," in Social Security Bulletin, 8 (1945): 19-21. Reminiscences of Dean Jack B. Tate, OHC, 10-11, 72-73; Reminiscences of Jane Hoey, OHC, 42.
197. Social Security Administration, "'Suitable Home' Provisions of State Plans for Aid to Dependent Children," in Social Security Bulletin, 8 (1945): 19-21. Reminiscences of Dean Jack B. Tate, OHC, 10-11, 72-73; Reminiscences of Jane Hoey, OHC, 42.
198. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 50-51; also see 44-45.
199. SSB, Bureau of Public Assistance, Families Receiving Aid to Dependent Children, October 1942, 30.
200. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 42-48; Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor, (New York: Pantheon, 1971), 134-41.
201. Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, 42-48; Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor, (New York: Pantheon, 1971), 134-41.
202. Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor, 135.
203. Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 83-88.
204. Division of Plans and Grants to Jane M. Hoey, memo, January 16, 1940, "Savings in State and Local Funds Available for ADC," SSB, Chairman's Files, Subject Files, 1935-40, box 93, file 622.03, RG 47, NA.
205. Gilbert Y. Steiner, Social Insecurity: The Politics of Welfare (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 50-51.
206. Social Security Administration, "Old Age Assistance and Aid to Dependent Children, 1940-1950," by Ellen J. Perkins, in Social Security Bulletin 14 (November 1951): 13; Eveline M. Burns, The American Social Security System (Cambridge, Mass: Houghton-Mifflin, 1949), 360-63. For Figure 1, the average benefit levels per child in each state were figured by dividing the number of children on ADC in each state by the number of families in the program in that state, and then by dividing the average benefits per family by that amount.
207. Social Security Administration, "Old Age Assistance and Aid to Dependent Children, 1940-1950," by Ellen J. Perkins, in Social Security Bulletin 14 (November 1951): 13; Eveline M. Burns, The American Social Security System (Cambridge, Mass: Houghton-Mifflin, 1949), 360-63. For Figure 1, the average benefit levels per child in each state were figured by dividing the number of children on ADC in each state by the number of families in the program in that state, and then by dividing the average benefits per family by that amount.
208. SSB, Bureau of Public Assistance, "Families Receiving Aid to Dependent Children," by Agnes Leisy, pt. II, 22.
209. Quoted in Emma Octavia Lundberg, Unto the Least of These: Social Services for Children (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., Inc., 1947), 179.
210. Piven and Cloward, Regulating the Poor, 134-41.
211. "'Suitable Home' Provisions," 19-21; Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 80-93.
212. "'Suitable Home' Provisions," 19-21; Derthick, The Influence of Federal Grants, 80-93.
213. Social Security Administration, "People on the Move: Effect of Residence Requirement for Public Assistance," by Arthur J. Altmeyer, Social Security Bulletin 9 (1946): 3-7; Shapiro v. Thompson 394 U.S. 618 (1969).
214. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
215. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
216. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
217. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
218. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
219. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
220. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
221. Turnbull, Williams, and Chiet, eds., Economic and Social Security, Chap. 3; Altmeyer, Formative Years of Social Security, 80-82; Peterson & Rom, Welfare Magnets. 137. See especially the work of Carole Pateman, including The Sexual Contract (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), and her edited volume, Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory (Boston: Northeastern Press, 1986), particularly Pateman's "Introduction" and Merle Thornton's "Sex Equality is Not Enough for Feminists"; also see Susan Moeller Okin, Justice, Gender and the Family (New York Basic Books, 1989), especially chap. 5; Martha Ackelsburg, "Communities, Resistance, and Women's Activism: Some Implications for a Democratic Polity," in Women and the Politics of Empowerment, ed. Ann Bookman and Sandra Morgen, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 297-313; Catharine MacKinnon, Towards A Feminist Theory of the State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
222. Karen Orren, Belated Feudalism: Labor, the Law, and Liberal Development in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rogers M. Smith, "Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America," American Political Science Review 87 (1995): 549-66.
223. Karen Orren, Belated Feudalism: Labor, the Law, and Liberal Development in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Rogers M. Smith, "Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America," American Political Science Review 87 (1995): 549-66.
224. Haber and Murray, Unemployment Insurance, in the American Economy, 144-45.
225. Diana M. Pearce, "Toil and Trouble: Women and Unemployment Compensation," Signs 10 (1985): 452-54.
226. Martha F. Davis, Brutal Need: Lawyers and the Welfare Rights Movement, 1960-1973 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
227. King v. Smith 392 U.S. (1968); Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618 (1969); and Goldberg v. Kelley 397 U.S. 254 (1970).