Problems of Democracy and the Public Sphere in Modern Iran

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 17-37

  Katouzian, Homa ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT; STATE ROLE;

IRAN;

EID: 0032232686     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201x-18-2-31     Document Type: Article

References (43)

1. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
2. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
3. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
4. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
5. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
6. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
7. This brief analysis is based on Homa Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran," Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 3:8 (1988). Sources on the Constitutional Revolution are, of course, numerous. See, for example, Abdollah Mostawfi, Sharh-i Zindigani-yi Man, vol. 1 (Tehran: Zavvar, 1981); Nazim al-Islam Kermani, Sa'idi Sirjani (ed.), Tarikh-i Bidarl-yi Iranian, vols. 1 and 2 (Tehran: Agah, 1983); Ahmad Kasravi, Tarikh-i Mashrutah-'i Iran (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1967); Vanessa Martin, Islam and Modernism: The Iranian Revolution of 1906 (London: I, B. Tauris, 1989); Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Mangol Philip Bayat, Iran's First Revolution, Shi'ism and the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
8. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
9. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
10. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
11. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
12. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
13. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
14. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
15. This very brief account of the theory of Iranian history is based on the author's earlier works. For the principal references see Homa Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory of State, Politics and Society in Iran," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 24:1 (1997); "Problems of Political Development in Iran: Democracy, Dictatorship Or Arbitrary Government?", ibid, 22:4 (1995); Musaddiq and The Struggle for Power in Iran (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, second edition, 1999); Nub Maqalih dar Jami'ahshinasi-i Tarikhi-i Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998); Chahardah Maqalih dar Adabiyat, Ijtima'i, Falsafih va Iqtisad (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); Istibdad, Dimucrasi va Nihzat-i Milli (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, second edition, 1996); "The Aridisolatic Society, A Model of Long Term Social and Economic Development in Iran," The International Journal of Middle East Studies, June 1983; The Political Economy of Modern Iran (London and New York: Macmillan and New York University Press, 1981).
16. See, for example, "Dimukrasi, Diktaturi va Mas'uliyat-i Millat" in Istibdad, Dimukrasi va Nihzat-i Milli.
17. Most of the references in note 2, above, contain a comparative discussion of Iranian rebellions, revolts and revolutions. See especially "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory." For a comprehensive treatment of the subject see Homa Katouzian, "Towards A General Theory of Iranian Revolutions," paper presented to the annual conference of Center for Iranian Research and Analysis, April 1999, forthcoming.
18. Most of the references in note 2, above, contain a comparative discussion of Iranian rebellions, revolts and revolutions. See especially "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory." For a comprehensive treatment of the subject see Homa Katouzian, "Towards A General Theory of Iranian Revolutions," paper presented to the annual conference of Center for Iranian Research and Analysis, April 1999, forthcoming.
19. See further, Homa Katouzian, "Farrah-'i Izadi va Haqq-i Ilahi-i Padshahan," Ittila'at-e Siyasi va Iqtisadi, 129-130, summer 1998.
20. See, for example, Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Great Britain: Polity Press, 1989); and "The Public Sphere, An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique, 3, 1974. See also Peter Hohendahl, "Jürgen Habermas: 'The Public Sphere' (1964)," ibid.
21. See, for example, Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Great Britain: Polity Press, 1989); and "The Public Sphere, An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique, 3, 1974. See also Peter Hohendahl, "Jürgen Habermas: 'The Public Sphere' (1964)," ibid.
22. See, for example, Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Great Britain: Polity Press, 1989); and "The Public Sphere, An Encyclopedia Article (1964)," New German Critique, 3, 1974. See also Peter Hohendahl, "Jürgen Habermas: 'The Public Sphere' (1964)," ibid.
23. See further Katouzian, "Liberty and License in the Constitutional Revolution of Iran."
24. For a comprehensive study of this subject by the present author see, State and Society in Iran: From The Constitutional Revolution to the Rise of the Pahlavi State (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, forthcoming 1999); and "The Revolt of Shaykh Muhammad Khiyabani," IRAN, Journal of The British Institute for Persian Studies," June 1999.
25. For a comprehensive study of this subject by the present author see, State and Society in Iran: From The Constitutional Revolution to the Rise of the Pahlavi State (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, forthcoming 1999); and "The Revolt of Shaykh Muhammad Khiyabani," IRAN, Journal of The British Institute for Persian Studies," June 1999.
26. See further Katouzian, ibid, and "The Campaign Against The Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 25, 1, 1998. See also Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Rule (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1998).
27. See further Katouzian, ibid, and "The Campaign Against The Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 25, 1, 1998. See also Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Rule (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1998).
28. See further Katouzian, ibid, and "The Campaign Against The Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919," British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 25, 1, 1998. See also Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Rule (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1998).
29. For an extensive documentation and analysis of the above points see Katouzian State and Society in Iran; and "The Pahlavi Regime in Iran" in H. E. Chehabi and J. Linz (eds.) Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1997).
30. For an extensive documentation and analysis of the above points see Katouzian State and Society in Iran; and "The Pahlavi Regime in Iran" in H. E. Chehabi and J. Linz (eds.) Sultanistic Regimes (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1997).
31. See further, Katouzian, "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory" and "Problems of Political Development in Iran."
32. See Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The Crisis of Democracy, 1941-1953 (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1989); Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983); Nikki Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981); John Foran, A Century of Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
33. See Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The Crisis of Democracy, 1941-1953 (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1989); Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983); Nikki Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981); John Foran, A Century of Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
34. See Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The Crisis of Democracy, 1941-1953 (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1989); Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983); Nikki Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981); John Foran, A Century of Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
35. See Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The Crisis of Democracy, 1941-1953 (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1989); Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983); Nikki Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981); John Foran, A Century of Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
36. See Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran; Fakhreddin Azimi, Iran: The Crisis of Democracy, 1941-1953 (London and New York: I. B. Tauris and St. Martin's Press, 1989); Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1983); Nikki Keddie, Roots of Revolution (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1981); John Foran, A Century of Revolution (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
37. See the references in note 11.
38. This subject has been discussed in the author's works on modern Iranian history and politics including "Arbitrary Rule, A Comparative Theory," Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power,
39. and The Political Economy of Modern Iran.
40. See Martin F. Herz, A Diplomatist Looks at the Shah's Regime in June 1964 (Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Georgetown University, Washington, 1979).
41. For further discussions, by the author, of the above analysis and assessment, see his "Problems of Political Development," "Islamic Government and Politics: The Practice and Theory of the Absolute Guardianship of Jurisconsult" in Charles Davis (ed.) After the War: Iran, Iraq and the Arab Gulf (London: Croom Helm, 1990), and "The Political Economy of Iran Since the Revolution," Comparative Economic Studies, 31:3, 1989.
42. For further discussions, by the author, of the above analysis and assessment, see his "Problems of Political Development," "Islamic Government and Politics: The Practice and Theory of the Absolute Guardianship of Jurisconsult" in Charles Davis (ed.) After the War: Iran, Iraq and the Arab Gulf (London: Croom Helm, 1990), and "The Political Economy of Iran Since the Revolution," Comparative Economic Studies, 31:3, 1989.
43. See further Said Barzin, Jinahbandi-y Siyasi dar Iran (Tehran: Nashr-i Markaz, 1998), including the text of an interview with this author on "Factionalism in Modern Iran."