Civil armies, civil societies, and NATO's enlargement

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 137-160

  Nelson, Daniel N ^a  

^a Global Concepts Inc ^*  (United States)

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EID: 0032148299     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327x9802500109     Document Type: Article

References (44)

1. 1 Empirical assessments of this burden and resulting socioeconomic costs are discussed in Daniel N. Nelson, "Power at What Cost? The High Cost of Security in the Warsaw Pact," Journal of Soviet Military Studies 2, 3 (September, 1989): 317-345, reprinted in The Political Economy of Defense, ed. Andrew Ross (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 41-66.
2. 1 Empirical assessments of this burden and resulting socioeconomic costs are discussed in Daniel N. Nelson, "Power at What Cost? The High Cost of Security in the Warsaw Pact," Journal of Soviet Military Studies 2, 3 (September, 1989): 317-345, reprinted in The Political Economy of Defense, ed. Andrew Ross (New York: Greenwood Press, 1990), 41-66.
3. 2 A useful review is John Jaworsky's chapter, "Bulgaria," in Warsaw Pact: The Question of Cohesion, Phase II, vol. 3, ed. Teresa Rakowska-Harmstone and Christopher Jones (Ottawa: Ministry of Defense, ORAE, 1985), 9.
4. 3. Concerning East European defense expenditures and socioeconomic trade-offs during the communist period, consult Thad P. Alton's work in general. For example, Thad P. Alton, "East European Defense Expenditures, 1965-1982, in U.S. Congress," East European Economies: Slow Growth in the 1980s (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1985).
5. 4. See, for example, Graham Allison, Essence of a Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971).
6. 5. Edward Feit, The Armed Bureaucrats (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); see also Feit's "Pen, Sword and People: Military Regimes in the Formation of Political Institutions," World Politics 25 (January, 1973): 251-273.
7. 5. Edward Feit, The Armed Bureaucrats (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973); see also Feit's "Pen, Sword and People: Military Regimes in the Formation of Political Institutions," World Politics 25 (January, 1973): 251-273.
8. 6. These observations were made by Charles Anderson in his Politics and Economic Class in Latin America (Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1967), Chapter 4.
9. 7. Morris Janowitz, The Military in the Political Development of New Nations (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 3.
10. 8. Alfred Stepan, "Paths Towards Redemocratization," in Transitions from Authoritarian Regimes, eds. Guillermo O'Donnell and Philippe Schmitter (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1986), 64-84, especially 75-78.
11. 9. Edward Feit, Armed Bureaucrats (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 275-76.
12. 10. U.S. General Accounting Office, NATO Enlargement: U.S. and International Efforts to Assist Potential New Members, GAO/NSIAD-97-164 (June, 1997), 12.
13. 11. See Daniel N. Nelson and Georgeta Pourchot, "NATO: For Elites Only?" Defense News (9-16 September 1996). Many of the public opinion surveys that support these interpretations are displayed in comparative form in The New European Security Architecture II (Washington, D.C.: USIA Office of Research and Media Reaction, September, 1996).
14. 11. See Daniel N. Nelson and Georgeta Pourchot, "NATO: For Elites Only?" Defense News (9-16 September 1996). Many of the public opinion surveys that support these interpretations are displayed in comparative form in The New European Security Architecture II (Washington, D.C.: USIA Office of Research and Media Reaction, September, 1996).
15. 12. Jeffrey Simon recounts these episodes in NATO Enlargement and Central Europe (Washington, D.C.: NDU Press, 1996), 93, 95, and 106. His references include citations to Polish periodicals that reported the events, as translated by FBIS-EEU.
16. 13. One report on illegal arms shipments to zones of conflict - especially to combatants in the former Yugoslavia - by central and East European sources was Daniel N. Nelson, "Ancient Enmities, Modern Guns," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (December, 1993): 21-27.
17. 14. There are innumerable examples of such data gathered by indigenous organizations. One of the more revealing was a late 1994 survey of the Hungarian military, published in Magyar Nemzet (16 November 1994), entitled "Sociological Survey in the Army - Morale is Lost Without Money," translated in FBIS-EEU (17 November 1994), 23. Two years later, the Hungarian Army was bitter about its "ghetto state," and voicing its emergency condition . See, for example, "We Must Break Away from the Ghetto State," Magyar Nemzet (15 June 1996), translated in FBIS-EEU (18 June 1996), 21.
18. 14. There are innumerable examples of such data gathered by indigenous organizations. One of the more revealing was a late 1994 survey of the Hungarian military, published in Magyar Nemzet (16 November 1994), entitled "Sociological Survey in the Army - Morale is Lost Without Money," translated in FBIS-EEU (17 November 1994), 23. Two years later, the Hungarian Army was bitter about its "ghetto state," and voicing its emergency condition . See, for example, "We Must Break Away from the Ghetto State," Magyar Nemzet (15 June 1996), translated in FBIS-EEU (18 June 1996), 21.
19. 14. There are innumerable examples of such data gathered by indigenous organizations. One of the more revealing was a late 1994 survey of the Hungarian military, published in Magyar Nemzet (16 November 1994), entitled "Sociological Survey in the Army - Morale is Lost Without Money," translated in FBIS-EEU (17 November 1994), 23. Two years later, the Hungarian Army was bitter about its "ghetto state," and voicing its emergency condition . See, for example, "We Must Break Away from the Ghetto State," Magyar Nemzet (15 June 1996), translated in FBIS-EEU (18 June 1996), 21.
20. 14. There are innumerable examples of such data gathered by indigenous organizations. One of the more revealing was a late 1994 survey of the Hungarian military, published in Magyar Nemzet (16 November 1994), entitled "Sociological Survey in the Army - Morale is Lost Without Money," translated in FBIS-EEU (17 November 1994), 23. Two years later, the Hungarian Army was bitter about its "ghetto state," and voicing its emergency condition . See, for example, "We Must Break Away from the Ghetto State," Magyar Nemzet (15 June 1996), translated in FBIS-EEU (18 June 1996), 21.
21. 15. In this regard, see Nelson, "Ancient Enmities," and Daniel N. Nelson, "Waffen im Uberfluss: Rustungsguter des Warschauer Paktes und ihre Verbreitung," Europa-Archiv Folge 6 (1994) 179-186.
22. 15. In this regard, see Nelson, "Ancient Enmities," and Daniel N. Nelson, "Waffen im Uberfluss: Rustungsguter des Warschauer Paktes und ihre Verbreitung," Europa-Archiv Folge 6 (1994) 179-186.
23. 16. The author spoke with uniformed and civilian defense officials from all east-central and southeast European PfP members, with the exception of Albania, in multiple visits to the region from late 1995 through early 1997. In the course of many discussions that covered a range of topics, I inquired about disciplinary problems, social difficulties arising from reforms and downsizing, and reports of intramilitary/ministry criminal probes or corruption.
24. 17. In the Polish case, export of drugs facilitated by police, military, and customs officials' corruption may have reached the point of rivaling traditional sources in the Middle East, Latin America, or Southeast Asia. See, for example, a story on such illegal exports in Zycie Warszawy (26 September, 1994).
25. 18. Author's notes from Voice of America conference, "Poppies Along the Silk Road: Drugs, Security and Democracy in Central and Southwest Asia" (Washington, D.C., 27 March, 1997).
26. 19. A military aviation show at Kecskemet, Hungary, during mid-1997, for example, was portrayed to me as a particularly vivid example of U.S. and West European pressure to buy and buy soon some very expensive military hardware. Sponsored by major U.S. and European corporations in the defense business, such events utilize every legitimate sales technique mixed with ample hyperbole about what such purchases will do for a country's security, ties to the West, and specific policymakers' future opportunities.
27. 20. Ron Popeski, Reuters Dispatch from Bucharest (5 August 1997).
28. 21. While no data or specific information were ever provided to this author, frequent assertions were made about the process leading to this deal, involving political and military elites. I was unable to corroborate the assertions, except to say that they were frequently heard.
29. 22. A television report on the launch of this Parliamentary investigation was aired on 9 April, 1996. See FBIS-EEU 96-071 of the same date (p. 15) for a translation.
30. 23. Personal communications, in Bucharest on several occasions in 1996 and early 1997.
31. 24. Personal communication, Warsaw, Poland (May 1996).
32. 25. As cited by Janusz Grochowski in Polska Zbrojna (29 March 1993), 1.
33. 26. A personal communication deserves special mention in this regard. For a Polish colonel in the defense ministry, being directed by a younger civilian was wholly unacceptable. Expressing his intention to resign soon from the army, he pointed out with something less than political correctness that accepting such a chain of command (from a young civilian) would be like his wife calmly accepting directions from him in the kitchen.
34. 27. An egregious example was Col. Wieslaw Rozbicki's comments, cited in Gazeta Wyborcza (9 June 1994), 12-13, wherein he suggests denying civilian ministers access to intelligence information. Although fired for his comments, the brazen attitude reflects a wider mistrust that will require time, education, and law to eliminate.
35. 28. General Accounting Office, NATO Enlargement, 25.
36. 29. Comment to the author by a Czech MoD civilian who had participated in a "Defense Planners Exchange Program" event.
37. 30. In Bulgaria, when I opined that greater effort might be expended to portray life in the army to the Bulgarian public, and to underscore the contributions of the military to the nation, one general shot back, quite irritated, that "... we do not need 'public relations'; we are the 'people's army.'" Personal communication, Sofia, Bulgaria, November, 1995.
38. 31. An interesting commentary on the "Military and Society" is contained in Reka Szemerkenyi's Adelphi Paper, #306, "Central European Civil-Military Reforms At Risk" (London: IISS, 1996), 54-63.
39. 32. Hungarian Ministry of Defense, A Honvedelem Negy Eve 1990-1994 (Budapest: Zrinyi Kiado, February, 1994), 130, as cited by Reka Szemerkenyi, 58.
40. 33. Comment to the author by a senior Polish MoD official while in Brussels, July, 1997.
41. 34. This was an opinion offered to the author by a senior American analyst with NATO-PfP responsibilities in mid-1997.
42. 35. A thorough analysis of the consequences of NATO enlargement on the domestic politics of Central European states is offered in Daniel N. Nelson and Thomas S. Szayna, "NATO's Metamorphosis and Central European Politics: Effects of Alliance Transformation," paper written for the Center for Strategic and International Studies conference on NATO's Enlargement, October 7, 1997, and published in an edited version in Problems of Post-Communism Vol. 45, No. 4 (July/August 1998), pp. 32-43.
43. 36. SACLANT-sponsored "Eloquent Nugget" seminars, for example, are major annual events that, in 1996 and 1997, brought together officers from most PfP countries for a week of briefings and tours in Hampton Roads and Norfolk, followed by what I refer to as "low-impact" field exercises. The latter are primarily scripted peacekeeping or humanitarian scenarios, in which very limited numbers of troops are involved (usually symbolic numbers - a platoon, for example - per country). Besides the substantially political purpose of the exercise, logistics and communications bottlenecks likely to occur in multinational operations can be demonstrated and, presumably, mitigated. Author's interviews with Col. Bobby Smith (July 1996) and Col. James Flock (January 1997), U.S. Atlantic Command JTASC, Suffolk, Virginia.
44. 37. "Eloquent Nugget 96 Academic Schedule (Second Draft)," 12 July 1996, provided to the author by U.S. Atlantic Command JTASC, Suffolk, Virginia.