Experimental models of torsade de pointes

Cardiovascular Research

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 178-193

  Eckardt, Lars ^a   Haverkamp, Wilhelm ^a   Borggrefe, Martin ^a   Breithardt, Günter ^a  

^a Hosp of the Westfalische W   (Germany)

Author keywords

Experimental models; In vitro; In vivo; Long QT syndrome; Torsade de pointes

Indexed keywords

ACECAINIDE; AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIMALARIAL AGENT; BEPRIDIL; CHLORAL HYDRATE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DISOPYRAMIDE; DROPERIDOL; ERYTHROMYCIN; HALOFANTRINE; HALOPERIDOL; IBUTILIDE FUMARATE; IMIPRAMINE; ION CHANNEL; LIDOFLAZINE; ORGANOPHOSPHATE; PHENOTHIAZINE DERIVATIVE; PIMOZIDE; PROCAINAMIDE; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; QUINIDINE; SEMATILIDE; SEROTONIN ANTAGONIST; SOTALOL; SPIRAMYCIN; TERFENADINE; TETRACYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG;

HEART DEPOLARIZATION; HEART REPOLARIZATION; HUMAN; LONG QT SYNDROME; MOLECULAR GENETICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TORSADE DES POINTES;

ANIMALS; COMPUTER SIMULATION; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; DOGS; FERRETS; GUINEA PIGS; MICE; MODELS, CARDIOVASCULAR; PERFUSION; RABBITS; RATS; SHEEP; SWINE; TORSADES DE POINTES;

EID: 0032126163     PISSN: 00086363     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0008-6363(98)00043-1     Document Type: Review

References (246)

1. [1] Dessertenne F. La tachycardie ventriculaire à deux foyers opposés variables. Arch Mal Coeur 1966;59:263-272.
2. [2] Schwartz PJ, Periti M, Malliani A. The long Q-T syndrome. Am Heart J 1975;89:378-390.
3. [3] Leenhardt A, Coumel P, Slama R. Torsades de pointes. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1992;3:281-292.
4. [4] Zipes DP. The long QT interval syndrome. A Rosetta stone for sympathetic related ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 1991;84:1414-1419.
5. [5] Jackman WM, Friday KJ, Anderson JL, Aliot EM, Clark M, Lazzara R. The long QT syndromes: A critical review, new clinical observations and a unifying hypothesis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1988;31:115-172.
6. [6] Hohnloser SH, Singh BN. Proarrhythmia with class III antiarrhythmic drugs: definition, electrophysiologic mechanisms, incidence, predisposing factors, and clinical implications. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:920-936.
7. [7] Haverkamp W, Hördt M, Chen X, et al. Torsade de pointes. Z Kardiol 1993;82:763-774.
8. [8] Haverkamp W, Shenasa M, Borggrefe M, Breithardt G. Torsade de pointes. In: Zipes DP, Jalife J, editors. Cardiac electrophysiology: from cell to bedside, second ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1995:885-899.
9. [9] Ben David J, Zipes DP. Torsades de pointes and proarrhythmia. Lancet 1993;341:1578-1582.
10. [10] Roden DM, Thompson KA, Hoffman BF, Woosley RL. Clinical features and basic mechanisms of quinidine-induced arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986;8:73A-78A.
11. [11] Haverkamp W, Martinez Rubio A, Hief C, et al. Efficacy and safety of D,L-sotalol in patients with ventricular tachycardia or survivors of cardiac arrest. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:487-495.
12. [12] Kass RS, Davies MP. The roles of ion channels in an inherited heart disease: molecular genetics of the long QT syndrome. Cardiovasc Res 1996;32:443-454.
13. [13] Sanguinetti MC, Jiang C, Curran ME, Keating MT. A mechanistic link between an inherited and an acquired cardiac arrhythmia: HERG encodes the I(Kr) potassium channel. Cell 1995;81:299-307.
14. [14] Roden DM, George AL, Bennett PB. Recent advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of the long QT syndrome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1996;6:1023-1031.
15. [15] Habbab MA, El Sherif N. Drug-induced torsades de pointes: Role of early afterdepolarizations and dispersion of repolarization. Am J Med 1990;89:241-246.
16. [16] El Sherif N, Bekheit S, Henkin R. Quinidine-induced long QTU interval and torsade de pointes: role of bradycardia-dependent early afterdepolarizations. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989;14:252-257.
17. [17] El Sherif N, Craelius W, Boutjdir M, Gough WB. Early afterdepolarizations and arrhythmogenesis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1990;1:145-160.
18. [18] January CT, Shorofsky S. Early afterdepolarizations: newer insights into cellular mechanisms. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1990;1: 161-169.
19. [19] January CT, Chau V, Makielski JC. Triggered activity in the heart: cellular mechanisms of early after-depolarizations. Eur Heart J 1991;12:4-9.
20. [20] January CT, Moscucci A. Cellular mechanisms of early afterdepolarizations. Ann New York Acad Sci 1992;644:23-32.
21. [21] Cranefield PF. Action potentials, afterpotentials, and arrhythmias. Circ Res 1977;41:415-423.
22. [22] Dessertenne F, Fabiato A, Coumel P. Un chapitre nouveau d'electrocardiographie: les variations progressives de l'amplitude de l'électrocardiogramme. Actual Cardiol Angeiol Int 1966;15:241-258.
23. [23] Naumann D, Alnoncourt C, Zierhut W, Lüderitz B. "Torsade de pointes" tachycardia reentry or focal activity?. Br Heart J 1982;48:213-216.
24. [24] Krikler DM, Curry PVL. Torsade de pointes, an atypical ventricular tachycardia. Br Heart J 1976;38:117-120.
25. [25] Slama R, Coumel P, Motte G, Gourgon R, Waynberger M, Touche S. Ventricular tachycardia and "volley of ventricular spikes". Morphological frontiers between ventricular dysrhythmias. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1973;66:1401-1411.
26. [26] Surawicz B. Electrophysiologic substrate of torsade de pointes: dispersion of repolarization or early afterdepolarizations?. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989;14:172-184.
27. [27] Coumel P, Leclercq JF, Lucet V Possible mechanisms of the arrhythmias in the long QT syndrome. Eur Heart J 1985;6:115-129.
28. [28] Patterson E, Scherlag BJ, Lazzara R. Early afterdepolarizations produced by D,L-sotalol and clofilium. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997;8:667-678.
29. [29] Damiano BP, Rosen MR. Effects of pacing on triggered activity induced by early afterdepolarizations. Circulation 1984;69:1013-1025.
30. [30] Davidenko JM, Cohen L, Goodrow R, Antzelevitch Ch. Quinidine-induced action potential prolongation, early afterdepolarizations, and triggered activity in canine Purkinje fibers. Effects of stimulation rate, potassium, and magnesium. Circulation 1989;79:674-686.
31. [31] Sasyniuk BI, Valois M, Toy W. Recent advances in understanding the mechanisms of drug-induced torsades de pointes arrhythmias. Am J Cardiol 1989;64:29J-32J.
32. [32] Isenberg G. Cardiac Purkinje fibers: cesium as a tool to block inward rectifying potassium currents. Pflug Arch 1976;365:99-106.
33. [33] Levine JH, Spear JF, Guarnieri T, Weisfeldt ML, de Langen CD, Becker LC, Moore EN. Cesium chloride-induced long QT syndrome: demonstration of afterdepolarizations and triggered activity in vivo. Circulation 1985;72:1092-1103.
34. [34] Hiraoka M, Sawada K, Kawano S. Effects of quinidine on plateau currents of guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1986;18:1097-1106.
35. [35] Imaizumi Y, Giles WR. Quinidine-induced inhibition of transient outward current in cardiac muscle. Am J Physiol 1987;253:H704-H708.
36. [36] Roden DM, Bennett PB, Snyders DJ, Balser JR, Hondeghem LM. Quinidine delays I(K) activation in guinea pig ventricular myocytes. Circ Res 1988;62:1055-1058.
37. [37] Carmeliet E. Electrophysiologic and voltage clamp analysis of the effects of sotalol on isolated cardiac muscle and Purkinje fibers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1985;232:817-825.
38. [38] Arena JP, Kass RS. Block of heart potassium channels by clofilium and its tertiary analogs: relationship between drug structure and type of channel blocked. Mol Pharmacol 1988;34:60-66.
39. [39] Bkaily G, Payet MD, Benabderrazik M, Sauve R, Renaud JF, Bacaner M, Sperelakis N. Intracellular bretylium blocks Na(+) and K(+) currents in heart cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1988;151:389-397.
40. [40] Colatsky TJ. Mechanisms of action of lidocaine and quinidine on action potential duration in rabbit cardiac Purkinje fibers. An effect on steady state sodium currents?. Circ Res 1982;50:17-27.
41. [41] Nattel S, Quantz MA. Pharmacological response of quinidine induced early afterdepolarisations in canine cardiac Purkinje fibres: insights into underlying ionic mechanisms. Cardiovasc Res 1988;22:808-817.
42. [42] Fish FA, Prakash C, Roden DM. Suppression of repolarization-related arrhythmias in vitro and in vivo by low-dose potassium channel activators. Circulation 1990;82:1362-1369.
43. [43] January CT, Riddle JM, Salata JJ. A model for early afterdepolarizations: induction with the Ca(2+) channel agonist Bay K 8644. Circ Res 1988;62:563-571.
44. [44] January CT, Riddle JM. Early afterdepolarizations: mechanism of induction and block. A role for L-type Ca(2+) current. Circ Res 1989;64:977-990.
45. [45] Takanaka C, Singh BN. Barium-induced nondriven action potentials as a model of triggered potentials from early afterdepolarizations: significance of slow channel activity and differing effects of quinidine and amiodarone. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990;15:213-221.
46. [46] Jackman WM, Szabo B, Friday KJ, et al. Ventricular tachyarrhythmias related to early afterdepolarizations and triggered firing: relationship to QT interval prolongation and potential therapeutic role for calcium channel blocking agents. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1990;1:170-195.
47. [47] Cosio FG, Goicolea A, Lopez Gil M, Kallmeyer C, Barroso JL. Suppression of torsades de pointes with verapamil in patients with atrio-ventricular block. Eur Heart J 1991;12:635-638.
48. [48] Boutjdir M, Restivo M, Wei Y, Stergiopoulos K, El Sherif N. Early afterdepolarization formation in cardiac myocytes: analysis of phase plane patterns, action potential, and membrane currents. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:609-620.
49. [49] Attwell D, Cohen I, Eisner D, Ohba M, Ojeda C. The steady state TTX-sensitive ("window") sodium current in cardiac Purkinje fibres. Pflug Arch 1979;16:137-142.
50. [50] Gintant GA, Datyner NB, Cohen IS. Slow inactivation of a tetrodotoxin-sensitive current in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. Biophys J 1984;45:509-512.
51. [51] Romey G, Abita JP, Schweitz H, Wunderer G, Lazdunski M. Sea anemone toxin: a tool to study molecular mechanisms of nerve conduction and excitation-secretion coupling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1976;73:4055-4063.
52. [52] Warashina A, Jiang ZY, Ogura T. Potential-dependent action of Anemonia sulcata toxins III and IV on sodium channels in crayfish giant axons. Pflug Arch 1988;411:88-93.
53. [53] El Sherif N, Zeiler RH, Craelius W, Gough WB, Henkin R. QTU prolongation and polymorphic ventricular tachyarrhythmias due to bradycardia-dependent early afterdepolarizations. Afterdepolarizations and ventricular arrhythmias. Circ Res 1988;63:286-305.
54. [54] Antzelevitch C, Sicouri S. Clinical relevance of cardiac arrhythmias generated by afterdepolarizations. Role of M cells in the generation of U waves, triggered activity and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;23:259-277.
55. [55] Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C. Afterdepolarizations and triggered activity develop in a select population of cells (M cells) in canine ventricular myocardium: The effects of acetylstrophanthidin and Bay K 8644. Pace 1991;14:1714-1720.
56. [56] Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C. Drug-induced afterdepolarizations and triggered activity occur in a discrete subpopulation of ventricular muscle cells (M cells) in the canine heart: quinidine and digitalis. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993;4:48-58.
57. [57] Anyukhovsky EP, Sosunov EA, Rosen MR. Regional differences in electrophysiological properties of epicardium, midmyocardium, and endocardium: in vitro and in vivo correlations. Circulation 1996;94:1981-1988.
58. [58] Antzelevitch C. Letter to the Editor: Are M cells present in the ventricular myocardium of the pig? A question of maturity. Cardiovasc Res 1997;36:127-128.
59. [59] Liu DW, Antzelevitch C. Characteristics of the delayed rectifier current (I(Kr) and I(Ks)) in canine ventricular epicardial, midmyocardial, and endocardial myocytes: a weaker I(Ks) contributes to the longer action potential of the M cell. Circ Res 1995;76:351-365.
60. [60] Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C. Electrophysiologic characteristics of M cells in the canine left ventricular free wall. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:591-603.
61. [61] Sicouri S, Fish J, Antzelevitch C. Distribution of M cells in the canine ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1994;5:824-837.
62. [62] Sicouri S, Moro S, Elizari MV. D-Sotalol induces marked action potential prolongation and early afterdepolarizations in M but not epicardial or endocardial cells of the canine ventricle. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 1997;2:27-38.
63. [63] Antzelevitch C, Sun Z, Zhang Z, Yan G. Cellular and ionic mechanisms underling erythromycin-induced long QT intervals and torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;28:1836-1848.
64. [64] El Sherif N, Caref EB, Yin H, Restivo M. The electrophysiological mechanism of ventricular arrhythmias in the long QT syndrome: tridimensional mapping of activation and recovery patterns. Circ Res 1996;79:474-492.
65. [65] Carlsson L, Abrahamsson C, Drews L, Duker G. Antiarrhythmic effects of potassium channel openers in rhythm abnormalities related to delayed repolarization. Circulation 1992;85:1491-1500.
66. [66] Li ZY, Maldonado C, Zee Cheng C, Hiromasa S, Kupersmith J. Purkinje fibre-papillary muscle interaction in the genesis of triggered activity in a guinea pig model. Cardiovasc Res 1992;26:543-548.
67. [67] Zabel M, Hohnloser SH, Behrens S, Li Y-G, Woosley RL, Franz MR. Electrophysiologic features of torsade de pointes: insights from a new rabbit heart model. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997;8:1148-1158.
68. [68] Johna R, Mertens H, Haverkamp W, et al. Clofilium in the isolated perfused rabbit heart: a new model to study proarrhythmia by class III antiarrhythmic drugs. Basic Res Cardiol 1998; in press.
69. [69] Eckardt L, Haverkamp W, Mertens H, et al. Drug related torsade de pointes in the isolated rabbit heart: comparison of clofilium, D,L-sotalol and erythromycin. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; in press.
70. [70] Davy JM, Weissenburger J, Ertzbischoff O, et al. Sotalol-induced torsades de pointe in conscious dogs with atrioventricular block: role of hypokalaemia. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1988;81:1117-1124.
71. [71] Vos MA, Verduyn SC, Gorgels APM, Lipcsei GC, Wellens HJJ. Reproducible induction of early afterdepolarizations and torsade de pointes arrhythmias by D-sotalol and pacing in dogs with chronic atrioventricular block. Circulation 1995;91:864-872.
72. [72] Asano Y, Davidenko JM, Baxter WT, Gray RA, Jalife J. Optical mapping of drug-induced polymorphic arrhythmias and torsade de pointes in the isolated rabbit heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29:831-842.
73. [73] Cranefield PF, Aronson RS. Torsades de pointes and early afterdepolarizations. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1991;5:531-538.
74. [74] Abildskov JA, Lux RL. The mechanism of simulated torsade de pointes in a computer model of propagated excitation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1991;2:224-237.
75. [75] Abildskov JA, Lux RL. Mechanisms in simulated torsade de pointes. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993;4:547-560.
76. [76] Abildskov JA, Lux RL. Mechanisms in adrenergic dependent onset of torsades de pointes. Pace 1997;20:88-94.
77. [77] Malik M, Camm AJ. Possible pathophysiology of torsade de pointes evaluated by a realistic heart computer model. Cardiovasc Res 1986;20:436-443.
78. [78] Roberts J, Stadter RP, Cairoli V, Modell W. Relationship between adrenergic activity and cardiac actions of quinidine. Circ Res 1962;11:758-764.
79. [79] Chezalviel Guilbert F, Davy JM, Poirier JM, Weissenburger J. Mexiletine antagonizes effects of sotalol on QT interval duration and its proarrythmic effects in a canine model of torsade de pointes. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:787-792.
80. [80] Weissenburger JJ, Nesterenko VV, Antzelevitch C. M cells contribute to transmural dispersion of repolarization and to the development of torsade de pointes in canine heart in vivo. Pace 1996;19:II-567 (Abstract).
81. [81] Weissenburger J, Davy JM, Chezalviel F, et al. Arrhythmogenic activities of antiarrhythmic drugs in conscious hypokalemic dogs with atrioventricular block: comparison between quinidine, lidocaine, flecainide, propranolol and sotalol. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991;259:871-883.
82. [82] Weissenburger J, Chezalviel F, Davy JM, et al. Methods and limitations of an experimental model of long QT syndrome. J Pharmacol Methods 1991;26:23-42.
83. [83] Tomsic M, Horvat M. Torsade de pointes associated with combined severe metabolic and respiratory alkalosis. Clin Intensive Care 1991;2:47-49.
84. [84] Brachmann J, Scherlag BJ, Rosenshtraukh LV, Lazzara R. Bradycardia-dependent triggered activity: relevance to drug-induced multiform ventricular tachycardia. Circulation 1983;68:846-856.
85. [85] Sato T, Hirao K, Hiejima K. The relationship between early afterdepolarization and the occurrence of torsades de pointes: an in vivo canine model study. Jpn Circ J 1993;57:543-552.
86. [86] Bailie DS, Inoue H, Kaseda S, Ben David J, Zipes DP. Magnesium suppression of early afterdepolarizations and ventricular tachyarrhythmias induced by cesium in dogs. Circulation 1988;77:1395-1402.
87. [87] Keren A, Tzivoni D. Magnesium therapy in ventricular arrhythmias. Pace 1990;13:937-945.
88. [88] Nayebpour M, Solymoss BC, Nattel S. Cardiovascular and metabolic effects of caesium chloride injection in dogs - limitations as a model for the long QT syndrome. Cardiovasc Res 1989;23:756-766.
89. [89] Hanich RF, Levine JH, Spear JF, Moore EN. Autonomic modulation of ventricular arrhythmia in cesium chloride-induced long QT syndrome. Circulation 1988;77:1149-1161.
90. [90] Pinsky C, Bose R. Pharmacological and toxicological investigations of cesium. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1984;21:17-23.
91. [91] Lab MJ. Contraction-excitation feedback in myocardium. Physiological basis and clinical relevance. Circ Res 1982;50:757-766.
92. [92] Franz MR, Cima R, Wang D, Profitt D, Kurz R. Electrophysiological effects of myocardial stretch and mechanical determinants of stretch-activated arrhythmias. Circulation 1992;86:968-978.
93. [93] Abrahamsson C, Duker G, Lundberg C, Carlsson L. Electrophysiological and inotropic effects of H 234/09 (almokalant) in vitro: a comparison with two other novel I(K) blocking drugs, UK-68,798 (dofetilide) and E-4031. Cardiovasc Res 1993;27:861-867.
94. [94] Carlsson L, Almgren O, Duker G. QTU-prolongation and torsades de pointes induced by putative class III antiarrhythmic agents in the rabbit: etiology and interventions. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1990;16:276-285.
95. [95] Carlsson L, Abrahamsson C, Andersson B, Duker G, Schiller Linhardt G. Proarrhythmic effects of the class III agent almokalant: importance of infusion rate, QT dispersion, and early afterdepolarisations. Cardiovasc Res 1993;27:2186-2193.
96. [96] Carlsson L, Drews L, Duker G, Schiller Linhardt G. Attenuation of proarrhythmias related to delayed repolarization by low-dose lidocaine in the anesthetized rabbit. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1993;267:1076-1080.
97. [97] Hallman K, Carlsson L. Prevention of class III-induced proarrhythmias by flecainide in an animal model of the acquired long QT syndrome. Pharmacol Toxicol 1995;77:250-254.
98. [98] Böhm M, Diet F, Feiler G, Kemkes B, Erdmann E. alpha-Adrenoceptors and alpha-adrenoceptor-mediated positive inotropic effects in failing human myocardium. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1988;12:357-364.
99. [99] Mukherjee A, Haghani Z, Brady J, et al. Differences in myocardial alpha-and beta-adrenergic receptor numbers in different species. Am J Physiol 1983;245:H957-H961.
100. [100] Bardy GH, Ungerleider RM, Smith WM, Ideker RE. A mechanism of torsades de pointes in a canine model. Circulation 1983;67:52-59.
101. [101] Inoue H, Murakawa Y, Toda I, et al. Epicardial activation patterns of torsade de pointes in canine hearts with quinidine-induced long QT interval but without myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 1986;111:1080-1087.
102. [102] Leichter D, Danilo PJ, Boyden P, Rosen TS, Rosen MR. A canine model of torsades de pointes. Pace 1988;11:2235-2245.
103. [103] Verduyn SC, Vos MA, Gorgels AP, van der Zande J, Leunissen JDM, Wellens HJ. The effect of flunarizine and ryanodine on acquired torsades de pointes arrhythmias in the intact canine heart. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:189-200.
104. [104] Viskin S, Alla SR, Barron HV, et al. Mode of onset of torsade de pointes in congenital long QT syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;28:1262-1268.
105. [105] Verduyn SC, Vos MA, van der Zande J, van der Hulst FF, Wellens HJ. Role of interventricular dispersion of repolarization in acquired torsade-de-pointes arrhythmias: reversal by magnesium. Cardiovasc Res 1997;34:453-463.
106. [106] Schwartz PJ. Sympathetic imbalance and cardiac arrhythmias. In: Randall WC, editor. Nervous control of cardiovascular function. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984:225-251.
107. [107] Crampton R. Preeminence of the left stellate ganglion in the long Q-T syndrome. Circulation 1979;59:769-778.
108. [108] Ben David J, Zipes DP. alpha-Adrenoceptor stimulation and blockade modulates cesium-induced early afterdepolarizations and ventricular tachyarrhythmias in dogs. Circulation 1990;82:225-233.
109. [109] Malfatto G, Steinberg SF, Rosen TS, Danilo PJ, Rosen MR. Experimental QT interval prolongation. Ann New York Acad Sci 1992;644:74-83.
110. [110] Malfatto G, Rosen TS, Steinberg SF, et al. Sympathetic neural modulation of cardiac impulse initiation and repolarization in the newborn rat. Circ Res 1990;66:427-437.
111. [111] Moise NS, Meyers Wallen V, Flahive WJ, et al. Inherited ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death in German shepherd dogs. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;24:233-243.
112. [112] Moise NS, Gilmour Jr RF, Riccio ML. An animal model of spontaneous arrhythmic death. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1997;8:98-103.
113. [113] Gilmour Jr RF, Moise NS. Triggered activity as a mechanism for inherited ventricular arrhythmias in German shepherd dogs. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:1526-1533.
114. [114] Leenhardt A, Glaser E, Burguera M, Nurnberg M, Maison Blanche P, Coumel P. Short-coupled variant of torsade de pointes: a new electrocardiographic entity in the spectrum of idiopathic ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Circulation 1994;89:206-215.
115. [115] Bonatti V, Rolli A, Botti G. Recording of monophasic action potentials of the right ventricle in long QT syndromes complicated by severe ventricular arrhythmias. Eur Heart J 1983;4:168-179.
116. [116] Napolitano C, Priori SG, Schwartz PJ. Torsade de pointes: mechanisms and management. Drugs 1994;47:51-65.
117. [117] Bennett PB, McKinney LC, Kass RS, Begenisich T. Delayed rectification in the calf cardiac Purkinje fiber. Evidence for multiple state kinetics. Biophys J 1985;48:553-567.
118. [118] Hume JR, Giles W, Robinson K, et al. A time-and voltage-dependent K(+) current in single cardiac cells from bullfrog atrium. J Gen Physiol 1986;88:777-798.
119. [119] Shibasaki T. Conductance and kinetics of delayed rectifier potassium channels in nodal cells of the rabbit heart. J Physiol London 1987;387:227-250.
120. [120] Sanguinetti MC, Jurkiewicz NK. Two components of cardiac delayed rectifer K+ current: differential sensitivity to block by class III antiarrhythmic agents. J Gen Physiol 1990;96:99-106.
121. [121] Sanguinetti MC, Jurkiewicz NK. Delayed rectifier outward K(+) current is composed of two currents in guinea pig atrial cells. Am J Physiol 1991;260:H393-H399.
122. [122] Sanguinetti MC. Modulation of potassium channels by antiarrhythmic and antihypertensive drugs. Hypertension 1992;19:228-236.
123. [123] Wang Q, Shen J, Splawski I, et al. SCN5A mutations associated with an inherited cardiac arrhythmia, long QT syndrome. Cell 1995;80:805-811.
124. [124] Bennett PB, Yazawa K, Makita N, George AL. Molecular mechanism for an inherited cardiac arrhythmia. Nature 1995;376:683-685.
125. [125] El Sherif N, Fozzard HA, Hanck DA. Dose-dependent modulation of the cardiac sodium channel by sea anemone toxin ATXII. Circ Res 1992;70:285-301.
126. [126] Curran ME, Splawski I, Timothy KW, Vincent GM, Green ED, Keating MT. A molecular basis for cardiac arrhythmia: HERG mutations cause long QT syndrome. Cell 1995;80:795-803.
127. [127] Keating MT. The long QT syndrome: a review of recent molecular genetic and physiologic discoveries. Medicine 1996;75:1-5.
128. [128] Sato T, Hata Y, Yamamoto M, et al. Early afterdepolarization abolished by potassium channel opener in a patient with idiopathic long QT syndrome. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:279-282.
129. [129] Priori SG, Napolitano C, Cantu F, Brown AM, Schwartz PJ. Differential response to Na(+) channel blockade, beta-adrenergic stimulation, and rapid pacing in a cellular model mimicking the SCN5A and HERG defects present in the long-QT syndrome. Circ Res 1996;78:1009-1015.
130. [130] Schwartz PJ, Priori SG, Locati EH, et al. Long QT syndrome patients with mutations of the SCN5A and HERG genes have differential responses to Na(+) channel blockade and to increases in heart rate: implications for gene-specific therapy. Circulation 1995;92:3381-3386.
131. [131] Schulze Bahr E, Haverkamp W, Hördt M, et al. A genetic basis for quinidine-induced (acquired) long-QT syndrome. Eur Heart J 1997;18:323 (Abstract).
132. [132] Priori SG, Napolitano C, Schwartz P, et al. KvLQT1 mutation in drug-induced torsade de pointes. Eur Heart J 1997;18:324 (Abstract).
133. [133] Kawasaki R, Machado C, Reinoehl J, et al. Increased propensity of women to develop torsades de pointes during complete heart block. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:1032-1038.
134. [134] Fontaine G. A new look at torsades de pointes. Ann New York Acad Sci 1992;644:157-177.
135. [135] Makkar RR, Fromm BS, Steinman RT, Meissner MD, Lehmann MH. Female gender as a risk factor for torsades de pointes associated with cardiovascular drugs. J Am Med Assoc 1993;270:2590-2597.
136. [136] Drici DD, Burklow TR, Haridasse V, Glazer RI, Woosley LW Sex hormones prolong the QT interval and downregulate potassium channel expression in the rabbit heart. Circulation 1996;94:1471-1474.
137. [137] Roden DM, Woosley RL, Primm RK. Incidence and clinical feature of the quinidine-associated long QT syndrome: implications for patient care. Am Heart J 1986;111:1088-1093.
138. [138] Jervell A, Lange-Nielsen F. Congenital deaf-mutism, functional heart disease with prolongation of the Q-T interval, and sudden death. Am Heart J 1957;54:59-68.
139. [139] Romano C. Congenital cardiac arrhythmia. Lancet 1965;1:658-661.
140. [140] Ward OC. A new familial cardiac syndrome in children. J Ir Med Assoc 1964;54:103-109.
141. [141] Roden DM, Thompson KA, Hoffman BF, Woosley RL. Clinical features and basic mechanisms of quinidine-induced arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986;8:73A-78A.
142. [142] Roden DM, Woosley RL, Primm RK. Quinidine-associated long QT syndrome. Cardiol Board Rev 1987;4:89-94.
143. [143] Bauman JL, Bauernfeind RA, Hoff JV, Strasberg B, Swiryn S, Rosen KM. Torsade de pointes due to quinidine: observations in 31 patients. Am Heart J 1984;107:425-430.
144. [144] Boccardo D, Pitchon R, Wiener I. Adverse reactions and efficacy of high-dose procainamide therapy in resistant tachyarrhythmias. Am Heart J 1981;102:797-798.
145. [145] Olshansky B, Martins J, Hunt S. N-Acetyl procainamide causing torsades de pointes. Am J Cardiol 1982;50:1439-1441.
146. [146] Stevenson WG, Weiss J. Torsades de pointes due to N-Acetylprocainamide. Pace 1985;8:528-531.
147. [147] Riccioni N, Castiglioni M, Bartolomei C. Disopyramide-induced QT prolongation and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Am Heart J 1983;105:870-871.
148. [148] Azpitarte Almagro J, Casero A, Melgares R. Disopyramide-induced torsade de pointes. Report of a case with fatal course. Rev Esp Cardiol 1984;37:145-148.
149. [149] Brown MA, Smith WM, Lubbe WF, Norris RM. Amiodarone-induced torsades de pointes. Eur Heart J 1986;7:234-239.
150. [150] Jorens PG, Van Den Heuvel PA, Parizel GA. Amiodarone and torsades de pointes. Am Heart J 1990;120:1482.
151. [151] Kuck KH, Kunze KP. Sotalol-induced torsade de pointes. Am Heart J 1984;107:179-180.
152. [152] Ruffy R. Sotalol. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993;4:81-98.
153. [153] Chow MJ, Piergies AA, Bowsher DJ, et al. Torsade de pointes induced by N-acetylprocainamide. J Am Coll Cardiol 1984;4:621-624.
154. [154] Wong W, Pavlou HN, Birgersdotter UM, Hilleman DE, Mohiuddin SM, Roden DM. Pharmacology of the class III antiarrhythmic agent sematilide in patients with arrhythmias. Am J Cardiol 1992;69:206-212.
155. [155] Bashir Y, Thomsen PEB, Kingma JH, et al. Electrophysiologic profile and efficacy intravenous dofetilide (UK-68,798), a new class III antiarrhythmic drug, in patients with sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Am J Cardiol 1995;76:1040-1044.
156. [156] Naccarelli GV, Lee KS, Gibson JK, VanderLugt J. Electrophysiology and pharmacology of ibutilide. Am J Cardiol 1996;78:12-16.
157. [157] Brachmann J, Schöls W, Beyer T, Montero M, Enders B, Kübler W. Acute and chronic antiarrhythmic efficacy of D-sotalol in patients with sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Eur Heart J 1993;14:85-87.
158. [158] Viallon A, Page Y, Lafond P, et al. Bepridil and torsades de pointes: are the precautions of use respected?. Therapie 1994;49:431-434.
159. [159] Manouvrier J, Sagot M, Caron C, et al. Nine cases of torsade de pointes with bepridil administration. Am Heart J 1986;111:1005-1007.
160. [160] Fazekas T, Kiss Z. Torsade de pointes ventricular tachycardia associated with lidoflazine therapy. Eur Heart J 1984;5:343.
161. [161] Mohr R. Torsades de pointe with prenylamine. Lancet 1986;2:1218.
162. [162] Kiriike N, Maeda Y, Nishiwaki S, et al. Iatrogenic torsade de pointes induced by thioridazine. Biol Psychiatry 1987;22:99-103.
163. [163] Kriwisky M, Perry GY, Tarchitsky D, Gutman Y, Kishon Y. Haloperidol-induced torsades de pointes. Chest 1990;98:482-484.
164. [164] Guy JM, Andre Fouet X, Porte J, Bertrand M, Lamaud M, Verneyre H. Torsades de pointes and prolongation of the duration of QT interval following the injection of droperidol. Ann Cardiol Angeiol 1991;40:541-545.
165. [165] Young JB, Vandermolen LA, Pratt CM. Torsade de pointes: an unusual manifestation of chloral hydrate poisoning. Am Heart J 1986;112:181-184.
166. [166] Davison ET. Amitriptyline-induced torsade de pointes. Successful therapy with atrial pacing. J Electrocardiol 1985;18:299-302.
167. [167] Herrmann HC, Kaplan LM, Bierer BE. Q-T prolongation and torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia produced by the tetracyclic antidepressant agent maprotiline. Am J Cardiol 1983;51:904-906.
168. [168] Strasberg B, Coelho A, Welch W, Swiryn S, Bauernfeind R, Rosen K. Doxepin induced torsade de pointes. Pace 1982;5:873-877.
169. [169] Krahenbuhl S, Sauter B, Kupferschmidt H, Krause M, Wyss PA, Meier PJ. Case report: reversible QT prolongation with torsades de pointes in a patient with pimozide intoxication. Am J Med Sci 1995;309:315-316.
170. [170] Paris DG, Parente TF, Bruschetta HR, Guzman E, Niarchos AP. Torsades de pointes induced by erythromycin and terfenadine. Am J Emerg Med 1994;12:636-638.
171. [171] Schoenenberger RA, Haefeli WE, Weiss P, Ritz RF. Association of intravenous erythromycin and potentially fatal ventricular tachycardia with Q-T prolongation (torsades de pointes). Br Med J 1990;300:1375-1376.
172. [172] Verdun F, Mansourati J, Jobic Y, et al. Torsades de pointes" with spiramycine and mequitazine therapy: a case report. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1997;1:103-106.
173. [173] Lopez JA, Harold JG, Rosenthal MC, Oseran DS, Schapira JN, Peter T. QT prolongation and torsades de pointes after administration of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Am J Cardiol 1987;59:376-377.
174. [174] Toivonen L, Viitasalo M, Siikamaki H, Raatikka M, Pohjola Sintonen S. Provocation of ventricular tachycardia by antimalarial drug halofantrine in congenital long QT syndrome. Clin Cardiol 1994;17:403-404.
175. [175] Zimmermann M, Duruz H, Guinand O, et al. Torsades de pointes after treatment with terfenadine and ketoconazole. Eur Heart J 1992;13:1002-1003.
176. [176] Pohjola Sintonen S, Viitasalo M, Toivonen L, Neuvonen P. Itraconazole prevents terfenadine metabolism and increases risk of torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993;45:191-193.
177. [177] Rao KA, Adlakha A, Verma Ansil B, Meloy TD, Stanton MS. Torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia associated with overdose of astemizole. Mayo Clin Proc 1994;69:589-593.
178. [178] Kulkarni SM, Agarwal HK, Shaikh AA. Torsade de pointes complicating treatment with astemizol. Indian Heart J 1994;46:179-180.
179. [179] Sartori M, Pratt CM, Young JB. Torsade de pointe. Malignant cardiac arrhythmia induced by amantadine poisoning. Am J Med 1984;77:388-391.
180. [180] Gohn DC, Simmons TW. Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (torsade de pointes) associated with the use of probucol 7. New Engl J Med 1992;326:1435-1436.
181. [181] Aldariz AE, Romero H, Baroni M, Baglivo H, Esper RJ. QT prolongation and torsade de pointes ventricular tachycardia produced by ketanserin. Pace 1986;9:836-841.
182. [182] Van Camp G, Dereppe H, Renard M, Bernard R. Ketanserin and syncope. Acta Cardiol 1989;44:429-430.
183. [183] Vandermotten M, Verhaeghe R, De Geest H. Ventricular arrhythmias and QT-prolongation during therapy with ketanserin: report of a case. Acta Cardiol 1989;44:431-437.
184. [184] Liljeqvist JA, Edvardsson N. Torsade de pointes tachycardias induced by overdosage of zimeldine. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1989;14:666-670.
185. [185] Ludomirsky A, Klein HO, Sarelli P, et al. Q-T prolongation and polymorphous ("torsade de pointes") ventricular arrhythmias associated with organophosphorus insecticide poisoning. Am J Cardiol 1982;49:1654-1658.
186. [186] Kiss Z, Fazekas T. Organophosphates and torsade de pointes ventricular tachycardia [letter]. J R Soc Med 1983;76:984-985.
187. [187] Connolly MJ, Astridge PS, White EG, Morley CA, Cowan JC. Torsades de pointes ventricular tachycardia and terodiline. Lancet 1991;338:344-345.
188. [188] Pressler ML, Warner MR, Rubart M, Rardon DP, Zipes DP. In vivo and in vitro electrophysiologic effects of terodiline on dog myocardium. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:443-454.
189. [189] Thomas SHL, Higham PD, Hartigan Go K, et al. Concentration dependent cardiotoxicity of terodiline in patients treated for urinary incontinence. Br Heart J 1995;74:53-56.
190. [190] Wysowski DK, Bacsanyi J. Cisapride and fatal arrhythmia. New Engl J Med 1996;335:290-291.
191. [191] Hirata K, Kyushima M, Kawamitsu K, Asato H, Sunagawa H, Uehara H. A case of torsades de pointes probably caused by trimetaphan intoxication. J Cardiol 1994;24:243-247.
192. [192] Gonzalez A, Sager PT, Akil B, Rahimtoola SH, Bhandari AK. Pentamidine-induced torsade de pointes. Am Heart J 1991;122:1489-1492.
193. [193] Kurita T, Ohe T, Maeda K, et al. Bradycardia-related long QT syndrome and torsade de pointes: comparison between patients with complete AV block and with sinus bradycardia. Jpn Heart J 1994;35:145-146.
194. [194] Kurita T, Ohe T, Marui N, et al. Bradycardia-induced abnormal QT prolongation in patients with complete atrioventricular block with torsades de pointes. Am J Cardiol 1992;69:628-633.
195. [195] Strasberg B, Kusniec J, Erdman S, et al. Polymorphous ventricular tachycardia and atrioventricular block. Pace 1986;9:522-526.
196. [196] Shimizu W, Tanaka K, Suenaga K, Wakamoto A. Bradycardia-dependent early afterdepolarizations in a patient with QTU prolongation and torsade de pointes in association with marked bradycardia and hypokalemia. Pace 1991;14:1105-1111.
197. [197] Ruder MA, Flaker GC, Alpert MA, Bertuso J. Hypokalemia as a cause of cardiac arrest: results of electrophysiologic testing and long-term follow-up. Am Heart J 1985;110:490-491.
198. [198] Curry P, Fitchett D, Stubbs W, Krikler D. Ventricular arrhythmias and hypokalaemia. Lancet 1976;31:231-233.
199. [199] Giustiniani S, Robustelli Della Cuna F, Sardeo C, Forni MC. "Torsade de pointes" induced by hypocalcemia. G Ital Cardiol 1982;12:889-891.
200. [200] Mineoi K, Matsuoka H, Sumimoto T, et al. Torsade de pointes induced by hypocalcemia in a postoperative patient with thyrotoxicosis. Jpn Heart J 1992;33:735-738.
201. [201] Marsepoil T, Blin F, Hardy F, Letessier A, Sebbah JL. "Torsades de pointe" and hypomagnesaemia. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1985;4:524-526.
202. [202] Ramee SR, White CJ. Torsade de pointes and magnesium deficiency. Am Heart J 1985;109:164-167.
203. [203] Kumar A, Bhandari AK, Rahimtoola SH. Torsade de pointes and marked QT prolongation in association with hypothyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:712-713.
204. [204] Isner JM, Roberts WC, Heymsfield SB, Yager J. Anorexia nervosa and sudden death. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:49-52.
205. [205] Siegel RJ, Cabeen WR, Roberts WC. Prolonged QT interval-ventricular tachycardia syndrome from massive rapid weight loss utilizing the liquid-protein-modified-diet: sudden death with sinus node ganglionitis and neuritis. Am Heart J 1981;102:121-123.
206. [206] Di Pasquale G, Pinelli G, Andreoli A, Manini GL, Grazi P, Tognetti F. Torsade de pointes and ventricular flutter-fibrillation following spontaneous cerebral subarachnoid hemorrhage. Int J Cardiol 1988;18:163-172.
207. [207] Hust MH, Nitsche K, Hohnloser S, Bohm B, Just H. Q-T prolongation and torsades de pointes in a patient with subarachnoid hemorrhage. Clin Cardiol 1984;7:44-48.
208. [208] Rotem M, Constantini S, Shir Y, Cotev S. Life-threatening torsade de pointes arrhythmia associated with head injury. Neurosurgery 1988;23:89-92.
209. [209] Liu TF. Role of afterhyperpolarization in termination of early afterdepolarization in mouse atrial fibers. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1991;13:675-679.
210. [210] Zhou YY, Liu TF. Comparison of early afterdepolarization induced by cesium chloride in mouse atrial and ventricular fibers. Acta Pharmacol Sin 1995;16:261-265.
211. [211] Liu T, Cheng Y, Wei J. Early afterdepolarization in mouse atrial fibers induced by 3.0 mM K(+) and the inhibitory effects of tetrodotoxin and nifedipine. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1990;12:95-98.
212. [212] Liu TF, Wang ZM, Cheng YZ. Early afterdepolarization induced by ryanodine in atrial fibers of mouse heart. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1990;12:551-555.
213. [213] Coraboeuf E, Deroubaix E, Coulombe A. Acidosis-induced abnormal repolarization and repetitive activity in isolated dog Purkinje fibers. J Physiol Paris 1980;76:97-106.
214. [214] Adaniya H, Hayami H, Hiraoka M, Sawanobori T. Effects of magnesium on polymorphic ventricular tachycardias induced by aconitine. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1994;24:721-729.
215. [215] Kaseda S, Gilmour RF, Zipes DP. Depressant effect of magnesium on early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity induced by cesium, quinidine, and 4-aminopyridine in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. Am Heart J 1989;118:458-466.
216. [216] Kaseda S, Zipes DP. Effects of alpha adrenergic stimulations and blockade on early afterdepolarizations induced by cesium in canine cardiac Purkinje fibers. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1990;1:31-40.
217. [217] Szabo B, Kovacs T, Lazzara R. Role of calcium loading in early afterdepolarizations generated by Cs(+) in canine and guinea pig Purkinje fibers. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1995;6:796-812.
218. [218] Borgat C, Charpentier F, Le Marec H. Effects of magnesium on early afterdepolarisations and cesium-induced activity on the ferret Purkinje fibres. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 1992;85:83-90.
219. [219] Rozanski GJ, Witt RC. Early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity in rabbit cardiac Purkinje fibers recovering from ischemic-like conditions: role of acidosis. Circulation 1991;83:1352-1360.
220. [220] Gough WB, Hu D, El Sherif N. Effects of clofilium on ischemic subendocardial Purkinje fibers 1 day postinfarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1988;11:431-437.
221. [221] Kimura S, Bassett AL, Xi H, Myerburg RJ. Early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity induced by cocaine: a possible mechanism of cocaine arrhythmogenesis. Circulation 1992;85:2227-2235.
222. [222] Adamantidis MM, Kerram P, Caron JF, Dupuis BA. Droperidol exerts dual effects on repolarization and induces early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity in rabbit Purkinje fibers. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1993;266:884-893.
223. [223] Adamantidis MM, Caron JF, Dupuis BA. Triggered activity induced by combined mild hypoxia and acidosis in guinea-pig Purkinje fibers. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1986;18:1287-1299.
224. [224] Zaza A, Malfatto G, Rosen MR. Electrophysiologic effects of ketanserin on canine Purkinje fibers, ventricular myocardium and the intact heart. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1989;250:397-405.
225. [225] Roden DM, Hoffman BF. Action potential prolongation and induction of abnormal automaticity by low quinidine concentrations in canine Purkinje fibers. Relationship to potassium and cycle length. Circ Res 1985;56:857-867.
226. [226] Graham B, Gilmour RF, Stanton MS, Zipes DP. OPC-88117 suppresses early and delayed afterdepolarizations and arrhythmias induced by cesium, 4-aminopyridine and digitalis in canine Purkinje fibers and in the canine heart in situ. Am Heart J 1989;118:708-716.
227. [227] Spinelli W, Sorota S, Siegal M, Hoffman BF. Antiarrhythmic actions of the ATP-regulated K(+) current activated by pinacidil. Circ Res 1991;68:1127-1137.
228. [228] Marban E, Robinson SW, Wier WG. Mechanisms of arrhythmogenic delayed and early afterdepolarizations in ferret ventricular muscle. J Clin Invest 1986;78:1185-1192.
229. [229] Fan J, Liu T. Role of inward and delayed rectifier currents in generation of early afterdepolarization in guinea pig ventricular myocytes under K(+)-free or low K(+) superfusion. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol 1996;18:25-32.
230. [230] Volders PGA, Kulcsar A, Vos MA, et al. Similarities between early and delayed afterdepolarizations induced by isoproterenol in canine ventricular myocytes. Cardiovasc Res 1997;34:348-359.
231. [231] Ming Z, Nordin C, Siri F, Aronson RS. Reduced calcium current density in single myocytes isolated from hypertrophied failing guinea pig hearts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1994;26:1133-1143.
232. [232] Sicouri S, Antzelevitch C. A subpopulation of cells with unique electrophysiological properties in the deep subepicardium of the canine ventricle. The M cell. Circ Res 1991;68:1729-1741.
233. [233] Sicouri S, Quist M, Antzelevitch C. Evidence for the presence of M cells in the guinea pig ventricle. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1996;7:503-511.
234. [234] Pinney SP, Koller BS, Franz MR, Woosley RL. Terfenadine increases the QT interval in isolated guinea pig heart. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1995;25:30-34.
235. [235] Davidenko JM. Spiral wave activity: a possible common mechanism for polymorphic and monomorphic ventricular tachycardias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1993;4:730-746.
236. [236] Pertsov AM, Davidenko JM, Salomonsz R, Baxter WT, Jalife J. Spiral waves of excitation underlie reentrant activity in isolated cardiac muscle. Circ Res 1993;72:631-650.
237. [237] Verduyn SC, Vos MA, van der Zande J, Wellens HJJ. A comparison between the proarrhythmic effect of almokalant and D-sotalol in an animal model of torsades de pointes arrhythmias. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:170A (Abstract).
238. [238] Kasten GW. High serum bupivacaine concentrations produce rhythm disturbances similar to torsades de pointes in anesthetized dogs. Reg Anesth 1986;11:20-26.
239. [239] Miyazaki T, Pride HP, Zipes DP. Prostaglandin modulation of early afterdepolarizations and ventricular tachyarrhythmias induced by cesium chloride combined with efferent cardiac sympathetic stimulation in dogs. J Am Coll Cardiol 1990;16:1287-1295.
240. [240] Inoue H, Matsuo H, Mashima S, Murao S. Effects of atrial pacing, isoprenaline and lignocaine on experimental polymorphous ventricular tachycardia. Cardiovasc Res 1984;18:538-547.
241. [241] Rubart M, Pressler ML, Pride HP, Zipes DP. Electrophysiological mechanisms in a canine model of erythromycin-associated long QT syndrome. Circulation 1993;88:1832-1844.
242. [242] El Sherif N, Mehra R, Gough WB, Zeiler RH. Ventricular activation patterns of spontaneous and induced ventricular rhythms in canine one-day-old myocardial infarction. Evidence for focal and reentrant mechanisms. Circ Res 1982;51:152-166.
243. [243] Inoue H, Sugimoto T. Torsades de pointes and ventricular fibrillation in a canine model of quinidine-induced QT prolongation. Ann New York Acad Sci 1992;644:93-102.
244. [244] Kang Y, Li F, Wang GX. Depressant effect of taurine on triggered activity induced by cesium chloride in rabbit heart in vivo. Acta Pharmacol Sin 1995;16:464-467.
245. [245] Takahashi N, Ito M, Saikawa T, Arita M. Nicorandil suppresses early afterdepolorisation and ventricular arrhythmias induced by caesium chloride in rabbits in vivo. Cardiovasc Res 1991;25:445-452.
246. [246] Buchanan LV, Kabell G, Brunden MN, Gibson JK. Comparative assessment of ibutilide, D-sotalol, clofilium, E-4031, and UK-68,798 in a rabbit model of proarrhythmia. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1993;22:540-549.