Consuming brotherhood: Men's culture, style and recreation as consumer culture, 1880-1930

Journal of Social History

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 773-808

  Swiencicki, Mark A ^a,b  

^a Department of Sociology ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0032093983     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh/31.4.773     Document Type: Article

References (255)

1. Kathy Peiss, "Of Makeup and Men: The Gendering of Cosmetics," paper presented at "The Material Culture of Gender Conference" (Winterthur Museum, November 1989), p. 2.
2. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
3. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
4. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
5. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
6. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
7. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
8. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
9. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
10. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
11. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
12. Books dealing with the history of gendered consumption include Elaine S. Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store (New York, 1989); Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers and Customers in American Department Stores (Chicago, 1986); Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York, 1985); Gary Cross, Time and Money: The Making of Consumer Culture (New York, 1993); Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men (Garden City, 1983); Stuart Ewen and Elizabeth Ewen, Channels of Desire: Mass Images and the Shaping of American Consciousness (Minneapolis, 1992); Daniel Horowitz, The Morality of Spending: Attitudes toward the Consumer in America, 1875-1940 (Baltimore, 1985); Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley, 1985); Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York, 1994); while articles include Kenon Breazeale, "In Spite of Women: Esquire Magazine and the Construction of the Male Consumer," Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 20 (1994): 1-22; and Rudi Laermans, "Learning to Consume: Early Department Stores and the Shaping of the Modern Consumer Culture (1860-1914)," Theory, Culture & Society 10 (1993): 79-102.
13. For instance, Weinbaum and Bridges refer to consumption as "purchasing goods and services for household members"; Batya Weinbaum and Amy Bridges, "The Other Side of the Paycheck: Monopoly Capital and the Structure of Consumption," in Zillah R. Eisenstein ed., Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism (New York, 1979), pp. 190-205, 193.
14. Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, pp. 70, 79, xxiii.
15. Cross, Time and Money, pp. 167-8.
16. Breazeale, "In Spite of Women," p. 1; Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men, p. 49.
17. Breazeale, "In Spite of Women," p. 1; Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men, p. 49.
18. Although numerous women's historians have exposed the inaccuracy of the producer/consumer dichotomy by showing how economically productive domestic labor was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (i.e., Laura Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750 [New York, 1982]; Julie Matthaei, An Economic History of Women in America: Women's Work, the Sexual Division of Labor, and the Development of Capitalism [New York, 1982]), such a dichotomy still permeates the literature on gendered consumption.
19. Although numerous women's historians have exposed the inaccuracy of the producer/consumer dichotomy by showing how economically productive domestic labor was during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (i.e., Laura Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750 [New York, 1982]; Julie Matthaei, An Economic History of Women in America: Women's Work, the Sexual Division of Labor, and the Development of Capitalism [New York, 1982]), such a dichotomy still permeates the literature on gendered consumption.
20. Bowlby, Just Looking, p. 27; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 28; Helen Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post 1880-1910 (Albany, 1994), p. 4.
21. Bowlby, Just Looking, p. 27; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 28; Helen Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post 1880-1910 (Albany, 1994), p. 4.
22. Bowlby, Just Looking, p. 27; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 28; Helen Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions: Gender and Commerce in the Ladies' Home Journal and the Saturday Evening Post 1880-1910 (Albany, 1994), p. 4.
23. Eric Lampard, "Introductory Essay," in William R. Taylor, ed., Inventing Times Square: Commerce and Culture at the Crossroads of the World (New York, 1991), pp. 16-35.
24. Jon Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," in Elizabeth Pleck and Joseph Pleck eds., The American Man (Englewood Cliffs, 1980), pp. 255-83; David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York, 1983).
25. Jon Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," in Elizabeth Pleck and Joseph Pleck eds., The American Man (Englewood Cliffs, 1980), pp. 255-83; David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York, 1983).
26. Jon Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club': Social Functions of the Urban Working-Class Saloon," in Elizabeth Pleck and Joseph Pleck eds., The American Man (Englewood Cliffs, 1980), pp. 255-83; David Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York, 1991); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will: Workers and Leisure in an Industrial City, 1870-1920 (New York, 1983).
27. Anthony E. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York 1993); Mark Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven 1989); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York, 1996).
28. Anthony E. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York 1993); Mark Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven 1989); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York, 1996).
29. Anthony E. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York 1993); Mark Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven 1989); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York, 1996).
30. Anthony E. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York 1993); Mark Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood in Victorian America (New Haven 1989); Mary Ann Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood: Class, Gender, and Fraternalism (Princeton 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, Manhood in America: A Cultural History (New York, 1996).
31. Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, 1981); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World 1890-1940 (New York, 1994); Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex, 1790-1920 (New York, 1992).
32. Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, 1981); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World 1890-1940 (New York, 1994); Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex, 1790-1920 (New York, 1992).
33. Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, 1981); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World 1890-1940 (New York, 1994); Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex, 1790-1920 (New York, 1992).
34. Lewis A. Erenberg, Steppin' Out: New York Nightlife and the Transformation of American Culture, 1890-1930 (Westport, 1981); David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York, 1993); George Chauncey, Gay New York: Gender, Urban Culture, and the Making of the Gay Male World 1890-1940 (New York, 1994); Timothy J. Gilfoyle, City of Eros: New York City, Prostitution, and the Commercialization of Sex, 1790-1920 (New York, 1992).
35. Ehrenrich, The Hearts of Men; Diane Barthel, Putting on Appearances: Gender and Advertising (Philadelphia, 1988); Frank Mort, Cultures of Consumption: Masculinities and Social Space in Late Twentieth-Century Britain (London, 1996).
36. Ehrenrich, The Hearts of Men; Diane Barthel, Putting on Appearances: Gender and Advertising (Philadelphia, 1988); Frank Mort, Cultures of Consumption: Masculinities and Social Space in Late Twentieth-Century Britain (London, 1996).
37. Ehrenrich, The Hearts of Men; Diane Barthel, Putting on Appearances: Gender and Advertising (Philadelphia, 1988); Frank Mort, Cultures of Consumption: Masculinities and Social Space in Late Twentieth-Century Britain (London, 1996).
38. See Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 66; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 223 n.77; Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, p. 178.
39. See Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 66; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 223 n.77; Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, p. 178.
40. See Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 66; Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 223 n.77; Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, p. 178.
41. Thus the perceived invariance of women doing "housework" across time and cultures; caring for chickens or hauling wood was "housework" if women did it, chopping wood was not if men did it.
42. For the data on 1890 imports and exports see William Howard Shaw, Value of Commodity Output since 1869 (New York, 1947).
43. The home manufacture of men's garments virtually ceased by 1879 (Claudia B. Kidwell and Margaret C. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America [Washington, 1974], p. 111), and the industrial poor relied almost totally on ready-made clothing (Ewen and Ewen, Channels of Desire, pp. 118, 123). Only middle-class women continued making some clothing until the end of the century (Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 39; Lois Banner, American Beauty [New York, 1983], p. 32).
44. The home manufacture of men's garments virtually ceased by 1879 (Claudia B. Kidwell and Margaret C. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America [Washington, 1974], p. 111), and the industrial poor relied almost totally on ready-made clothing (Ewen and Ewen, Channels of Desire, pp. 118, 123). Only middle-class women continued making some clothing until the end of the century (Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 39; Lois Banner, American Beauty [New York, 1983], p. 32).
45. The home manufacture of men's garments virtually ceased by 1879 (Claudia B. Kidwell and Margaret C. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America [Washington, 1974], p. 111), and the industrial poor relied almost totally on ready-made clothing (Ewen and Ewen, Channels of Desire, pp. 118, 123). Only middle-class women continued making some clothing until the end of the century (Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 39; Lois Banner, American Beauty [New York, 1983], p. 32).
46. The home manufacture of men's garments virtually ceased by 1879 (Claudia B. Kidwell and Margaret C. Christman, Suiting Everyone: The Democratization of Clothing in America [Washington, 1974], p. 111), and the industrial poor relied almost totally on ready-made clothing (Ewen and Ewen, Channels of Desire, pp. 118, 123). Only middle-class women continued making some clothing until the end of the century (Abelson, When Ladies Go A-Thieving, p. 39; Lois Banner, American Beauty [New York, 1983], p. 32).
47. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Compendium of the Ninth Census (New York, 1976; first published 1870), pp. 800-11; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census (Washington, 1890), pp. 143-57.
48. U.S. Bureau of the Census, A Compendium of the Ninth Census (New York, 1976; first published 1870), pp. 800-11; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census (Washington, 1890), pp. 143-57.
49. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census, pp. 148, 146. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufacturing Industries in the United States at the Eleventh Census vol. VI: 3 (Washington, D.C., 1890), p. 46.
50. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census, pp. 148, 146. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufacturing Industries in the United States at the Eleventh Census vol. VI: 3 (Washington, D.C., 1890), p. 46.
51. From here on, all statements about male or female consumption will refer to the monetary value of the goods consumed rather than to their numerical value.
52. See Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); and Matthaei, An Economic History of Women.
53. See Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia, 1986); and Matthaei, An Economic History of Women.
54. Fenja Gunn, The Artificial Face: A History of Cosmetics (New York, 1973), p. 136.
55. On men's cosmetics use, see Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 136; and Leonard de. Vries, Victorian Advertisements, text by James Laver (Philadelphia, comp. 1968), pp. 40, 41-65, 105.
56. On men's cosmetics use, see Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 136; and Leonard de. Vries, Victorian Advertisements, text by James Laver (Philadelphia, comp. 1968), pp. 40, 41-65, 105.
57. These figures were calculated as follows: 1) More lists drinking within the home as consuming 14.1% of the average family's sundries; Louise Bolard More, Wage Earners' Budgets: A Study of Standards and Cost of Living in New York City (New York, 1971, first published in 1907), p. 96. Assuming husbands drank about four-fifths of the home's alcohol (see Appendix, #2), they would have consumed about 11.3% of the family's total sundries (i.e., 4/5 × 14.1% = 11.3%), especially since drink consumption was reported as zero in most families in which the husband was dead or absent (pp. 96-7). 2) More reports that "spending money" was basically reserved for husbands and children (p. 99), with husbands receiving $4641.96 and children only $861.50 (pp. 100-1). Therefore, about 15.7% of the family's sundries would have gone to the husband for his personal spending money (i.e., .84 × 18.7%= 15.7%).
58. More, Wage Earner's Budgets, p. 43.
59. See Matthaei, An Economic History of Women; and Susan Levine, "Worker's Wives: Gender, Class and Consumerism in the 1920s United States," Gender & History 3 (1991): 45-64.
60. See Matthaei, An Economic History of Women; and Susan Levine, "Worker's Wives: Gender, Class and Consumerism in the 1920s United States," Gender & History 3 (1991): 45-64.
61. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
62. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
63. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
64. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
65. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
66. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
67. See Gerald Franklin Roberts, "The Strenuous Life: The Cult of Manliness in the Era of Theodore Roosevelt," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970; Melvin Adelman, A Sporting Time: New York City and the Rise of Modern Athletics, 1820-70 (Chicago, 1986); Elliot J. Gorn, The Manly Art: Bare-Knuckle Prize Fighting in America (Ithaca, 1986); Todd Crosset, "Masculinity, Sexuality, and the Development of Early Modern Sport," in Michael A. Messner and Donald F. Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives (Champaign, 1990), pp. 45-54; Steven A. Reiss, City Games: The Evolution of American Urban Society and the Rise of Sports (Urbana, 1989); Michael S. Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution of American Masculinity, 1880-1920," in Messner and Sabo eds., Sport, Men, and the Gender Order, pp. 55-66; Kimmel, Manhood in America.
68. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 192; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58; J. P. Hantover, "The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity," in Pleck and Pleck eds., The American Man., p. 293; Riess, City Games, p. 61; Adelman, A Sporting Time, pp. 283-84.
69. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 192; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58; J. P. Hantover, "The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity," in Pleck and Pleck eds., The American Man., p. 293; Riess, City Games, p. 61; Adelman, A Sporting Time, pp. 283-84.
70. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 192; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58; J. P. Hantover, "The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity," in Pleck and Pleck eds., The American Man., p. 293; Riess, City Games, p. 61; Adelman, A Sporting Time, pp. 283-84.
71. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 192; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58; J. P. Hantover, "The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity," in Pleck and Pleck eds., The American Man., p. 293; Riess, City Games, p. 61; Adelman, A Sporting Time, pp. 283-84.
72. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 192; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58; J. P. Hantover, "The Boy Scouts and the Validation of Masculinity," in Pleck and Pleck eds., The American Man., p. 293; Riess, City Games, p. 61; Adelman, A Sporting Time, pp. 283-84.
73. Adelman, A Sporting Time, p. 284; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58.
74. Adelman, A Sporting Time, p. 284; Kimmel, "Baseball and the Reconstitution," p. 58.
75. On the conspicuous consumption of elite sports see Donald J. Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1983); for the indulgent sporting underworld lifestyle see Gorn, The Manly Art. And although Kimmel's 1996 chapter on masculinity as recreation acknowledges considerable late-Victorian men's consumption via sports and fitness activities, he views such consumption as the therapeutic ingesting of the "symbols and props" of a pre-crisis masculinity rather than something men might also do for the sheer joy of consumption itself; Kimmel, Manhood in America, pp. 118-27, 155.
76. On the conspicuous consumption of elite sports see Donald J. Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1983); for the indulgent sporting underworld lifestyle see Gorn, The Manly Art. And although Kimmel's 1996 chapter on masculinity as recreation acknowledges considerable late-Victorian men's consumption via sports and fitness activities, he views such consumption as the therapeutic ingesting of the "symbols and props" of a pre-crisis masculinity rather than something men might also do for the sheer joy of consumption itself; Kimmel, Manhood in America, pp. 118-27, 155.
77. On the conspicuous consumption of elite sports see Donald J. Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 1880-1910 (Knoxville, 1983); for the indulgent sporting underworld lifestyle see Gorn, The Manly Art. And although Kimmel's 1996 chapter on masculinity as recreation acknowledges considerable late-Victorian men's consumption via sports and fitness activities, he views such consumption as the therapeutic ingesting of the "symbols and props" of a pre-crisis masculinity rather than something men might also do for the sheer joy of consumption itself; Kimmel, Manhood in America, pp. 118-27, 155.
78. Harvey Green, Fit for America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society (New York, 1986), p. 187; Rotundo, American Manhood, pp. 223-24.
79. Harvey Green, Fit for America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society (New York, 1986), p. 187; Rotundo, American Manhood, pp. 223-24.
80. Theodore P. Greene, America's Heroes: The Changing Models of Success in American Magazines (New York, 1970), pp. 127-31, 258-62.
81. Green, Fit for America, pp. 190-202; David I. Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and their Forerunners, 1870-1920 (Madison, 1983), p. 75.
82. Green, Fit for America, pp. 190-202; David I. Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy: The Boy Scouts, YMCA, and their Forerunners, 1870-1920 (Madison, 1983), p. 75.
83. Macleod, Building Character, p. 75.
84. Roberta J. Park, "Healthy, Moral, and Strong: Educational Views of Exercise and Athletics in Nineteenth-Century America," in Kathryn Grover ed., Fitness in American Culture: Images of Health, Sport, and the Body, 1830-1940 (Amherst, 1990), pp. 124-50; Green, Fit for America, pp. 186-94; John Durant and Otto Bettmann, Pictorial History of American Sports: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1952), pp. 61-100.
85. Roberta J. Park, "Healthy, Moral, and Strong: Educational Views of Exercise and Athletics in Nineteenth-Century America," in Kathryn Grover ed., Fitness in American Culture: Images of Health, Sport, and the Body, 1830-1940 (Amherst, 1990), pp. 124-50; Green, Fit for America, pp. 186-94; John Durant and Otto Bettmann, Pictorial History of American Sports: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1952), pp. 61-100.
86. Roberta J. Park, "Healthy, Moral, and Strong: Educational Views of Exercise and Athletics in Nineteenth-Century America," in Kathryn Grover ed., Fitness in American Culture: Images of Health, Sport, and the Body, 1830-1940 (Amherst, 1990), pp. 124-50; Green, Fit for America, pp. 186-94; John Durant and Otto Bettmann, Pictorial History of American Sports: From Colonial Times to the Present (New York, 1952), pp. 61-100.
87. Dudley Allen Sargent, "Ideals in Physical Education," Mind and Body 8 (1901): 221-26, 223.
88. By typically "male" activity I mean not "male-only" activities, but any activity in which males typically engaged or were associated with.
89. On baseball diamond costs see Ted Vincent, The Rise and Fall of American Sport: Mudville's Revenge (Lincoln, 1994), p. 65; and Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, 1983), p. 110. For admission fees see Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122; and Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, p. 110.
90. On baseball diamond costs see Ted Vincent, The Rise and Fall of American Sport: Mudville's Revenge (Lincoln, 1994), p. 65; and Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, 1983), p. 110. For admission fees see Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122; and Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, p. 110.
91. On baseball diamond costs see Ted Vincent, The Rise and Fall of American Sport: Mudville's Revenge (Lincoln, 1994), p. 65; and Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, 1983), p. 110. For admission fees see Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122; and Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, p. 110.
92. On baseball diamond costs see Ted Vincent, The Rise and Fall of American Sport: Mudville's Revenge (Lincoln, 1994), p. 65; and Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, 1983), p. 110. For admission fees see Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122; and Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, p. 110.
93. For liquor consumption see Rader, American Sports, p. 111; and for sports paraphernalia see Stephen Hardy, "'Adopted by All the Leading Clubs': Sporting Goods and the Shaping of Leisure, 1800-1900," in Richard Butsch ed., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990), 71-104, 82.
94. For liquor consumption see Rader, American Sports, p. 111; and for sports paraphernalia see Stephen Hardy, "'Adopted by All the Leading Clubs': Sporting Goods and the Shaping of Leisure, 1800-1900," in Richard Butsch ed., For Fun and Profit: The Transformation of Leisure into Consumption (Philadelphia, 1990), 71-104, 82.
95. For spectator class status see Rotundo, American Manhood, p. 239; and Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122.
96. For spectator class status see Rotundo, American Manhood, p. 239; and Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 122.
97. Vincent, The Rise and Fall, pp. 67-68.
98. Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 68; Rader, American Sports, pp. 56-57.
99. Vincent, The Rise and Fall, p. 68; Rader, American Sports, pp. 56-57.
100. Rader, American Sports, pp. 57-58.
101. See Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 112-17; Green, Fit for America, 225-26; Margaret Marsh, "Suburban Men and Domestic Masculinity, 1870-1915," in Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990), pp. 111-27, 124-25.
102. See Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 112-17; Green, Fit for America, 225-26; Margaret Marsh, "Suburban Men and Domestic Masculinity, 1870-1915," in Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990), pp. 111-27, 124-25.
103. See Mrozek, Sport and the American Mentality, 112-17; Green, Fit for America, 225-26; Margaret Marsh, "Suburban Men and Domestic Masculinity, 1870-1915," in Mark C. Carnes and Clyde Griffen eds., Meanings for Manhood: Constructions of Masculinity in Victorian America (Chicago, 1990), pp. 111-27, 124-25.
104. Rotundo, American Manhood, p. 61-62.
105. Rotundo, American Manhood, p. 63.
106. Rotundo, American Manhood, pp. 64-68, 143.
107. Louis Sullivan, From Female to Male: The Life of Jack Bee Garland (Boston, 1990), pp. 38-42.
108. Dawn Moore Santiago, "The Owls Club of Tucson," Journal of Arizona History 33 (1992): 241-68, 241-43, 261.
109. Alexander W. Williams, A Social History of the Greater Boston Clubs (Barre, 1970), pp. 31-3, 44.
110. Mary Ann Clawson, "Fraternal Orders and Class Formation in the Nineteenth-Century United States," Comparative Studies in Society and History 27 (1985): 672-95. Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood.
111. Mary Ann Clawson, "Fraternal Orders and Class Formation in the Nineteenth-Century United States," Comparative Studies in Society and History 27 (1985): 672-95. Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood.
112. Albert C. Stevens, comp. and ed., The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities (Detroit, 1966, first published 1907), p. xvi.
113. Lynn Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture 1880-1930 (Princeton, 1984).
114. Clifford Putney, "Service Over Secrecy: How Lodge-Style Fraternalism Yielded Popularity to Men's Service Clubs," Journal of Popular Culture 27 (1993): 179-90, 180.
115. Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, pp. 13, 15-23, 114.
116. Putney, "Service over Secrecy," p. 181.
117. Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood, pp. 41-9.
118. Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, p. 24.
119. Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood, p. 4. Annual expenditures on working-class lodges appear to have been somewhat lower, since the 200 families in More's budget study spent only $5-$26 per year on lodges; More, Wage Earner's Budgets, p. 43.
120. Carnes, Secret Rituals and Manhood, p. 4. Annual expenditures on working-class lodges appear to have been somewhat lower, since the 200 families in More's budget study spent only $5-$26 per year on lodges; More, Wage Earner's Budgets, p. 43.
121. W. S. Harwood, "Secret Societies in America," North American Review 164 (1897): 617-23, 617. A notable exception to the discrete nature of middle-class fraternal consumption would be the Shriners, who were notorious for their lavish parades, red fezes, and exaggerated titles - see Clawson, "Fraternal Orders and Class," p. 232.
122. W. S. Harwood, "Secret Societies in America," North American Review 164 (1897): 617-23, 617. A notable exception to the discrete nature of middle-class fraternal consumption would be the Shriners, who were notorious for their lavish parades, red fezes, and exaggerated titles - see Clawson, "Fraternal Orders and Class," p. 232.
123. Margaret F. Byington, Homestead: The Households of a Mill Town (Pittsburgh, 1974; first published 1910), pp. 84-86; Lizbeth A. Cohen, "Embellishing a Life of Labor: An Interpretation of the Material Culture of American Working-Class Homes, 1885-1915," Journal of American Culture 3 (1980): 752-75; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, pp. 24-25.
124. Margaret F. Byington, Homestead: The Households of a Mill Town (Pittsburgh, 1974; first published 1910), pp. 84-86; Lizbeth A. Cohen, "Embellishing a Life of Labor: An Interpretation of the Material Culture of American Working-Class Homes, 1885-1915," Journal of American Culture 3 (1980): 752-75; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, pp. 24-25.
125. Margaret F. Byington, Homestead: The Households of a Mill Town (Pittsburgh, 1974; first published 1910), pp. 84-86; Lizbeth A. Cohen, "Embellishing a Life of Labor: An Interpretation of the Material Culture of American Working-Class Homes, 1885-1915," Journal of American Culture 3 (1980): 752-75; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, pp. 24-25.
126. Peter R. Shergold, Working-Class Life: The "American Standard" in Comparative Perspective (Pittsburgh, 1982), pp. 204-6.
127. Banner, American Beauty, pp. 74-75; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York 1789-1860 (Chicago, 1986), p. 94.
128. Banner, American Beauty, pp. 74-75; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York 1789-1860 (Chicago, 1986), p. 94.
129. Banner, American Beauty, p. 75; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, pp. 63-65.
130. Banner, American Beauty, p. 75; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, pp. 63-65.
131. Stansell, City of Women, pp. 90-91; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, p. 99.
132. Stansell, City of Women, pp. 90-91; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, p. 99.
133. Abram C. Dayton, The Last Days of Knickerbocker Life in New York (New York, 1897), pp. 217-18.
134. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 134; Whitman cited by Nasaw, Going Out, p. 10.
135. Gorn, The Manly Art, p. 134; Whitman cited by Nasaw, Going Out, p. 10.
136. Cited by Banner, American Beauty, p. 239.
137. John L. Jennings, Theatrical and Circus Life (St. Louis, 1882), p. 55; Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds, and Sources of Criticism, Donald Pizer ed. (New York, 1970; first published 1900), p. 3.
138. John L. Jennings, Theatrical and Circus Life (St. Louis, 1882), p. 55; Theodore Dreiser, Sister Carrie: An Authoritative Text, Backgrounds, and Sources of Criticism, Donald Pizer ed. (New York, 1970; first published 1900), p. 3.
139. Cited by Jervis Anderson, "That was New York: Harlem," Part I, "The Journey Uptown," New Yorker 29 (June 1981): 38-69, 44, 43-44, 58.
140. Banner, American Beauty, p. 239.
141. Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, p. 12-13; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, pp. 95, 97; Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities, p. v.
142. Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, p. 12-13; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, pp. 95, 97; Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities, p. v.
143. Dumenil, Freemasonry and American Culture, p. 12-13; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, pp. 95, 97; Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities, p. v.
144. One might wonder how so many working-class men could afford to join lodges, but since lodges offered many working people their only opportunity to obtain sickness and death benefits, lodge membership was often more of a necessity than a luxury; Clawson, "Fraternal Orders and Class," 673.
145. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 181; Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities, p. 264.
146. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 181; Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities, p. 264.
147. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, 235; Jno Van Valkenberg, The Knights of Pythias Complete Manual and Textbook (Canton, 1887), p. 113.
148. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, 235; Jno Van Valkenberg, The Knights of Pythias Complete Manual and Textbook (Canton, 1887), p. 113.
149. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 235; Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus 1882-1992 (New York, 1982), pp. 56, 80; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 234.
150. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 235; Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus 1882-1992 (New York, 1982), pp. 56, 80; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 234.
151. Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 235; Christopher J. Kauffman, Faith and Fraternalism: The History of the Knights of Columbus 1882-1992 (New York, 1982), pp. 56, 80; Clawson, Constructing Brotherhood, p. 234.
152. On non-alcoholic saloon spending, see Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club,'" pp. 261-62, 267; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, pp. 53-56; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 99, 133; and Chauncey, Gay New York, p. 42.
153. On non-alcoholic saloon spending, see Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club,'" pp. 261-62, 267; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, pp. 53-56; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 99, 133; and Chauncey, Gay New York, p. 42.
154. On non-alcoholic saloon spending, see Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club,'" pp. 261-62, 267; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, pp. 53-56; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 99, 133; and Chauncey, Gay New York, p. 42.
155. On non-alcoholic saloon spending, see Kingsdale, "The 'Poor Man's Club,'" pp. 261-62, 267; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, pp. 53-56; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 99, 133; and Chauncey, Gay New York, p. 42.
156. Riess, City Games, p. 73.
157. Peiss, Cheap Thrills, pp. 141-42; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 133-34; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, pp. 120-21.
158. Peiss, Cheap Thrills, pp. 141-42; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 133-34; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, pp. 120-21.
159. Peiss, Cheap Thrills, pp. 141-42; Gorn, The Manly Art, pp. 133-34; Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness, pp. 120-21.
160. Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will, p. 106.
161. Herbert Asbury, The Gangs of New York; An Informal History of the Underworld (New York, 1927), p. 269.
162. John Mariano, The Second Generation of Italians in New York City (Boston, 1921), p. 140; Suzanne Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners and Candy Stores: Youth Leisure-Culture in New York City's Lower East Side during the 1930s," Journal of American Culture 14 (1991): 43-48, 46.
163. John Mariano, The Second Generation of Italians in New York City (Boston, 1921), p. 140; Suzanne Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners and Candy Stores: Youth Leisure-Culture in New York City's Lower East Side during the 1930s," Journal of American Culture 14 (1991): 43-48, 46.
164. Asbury, The Gangs of New York, pp. 269-70; Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners," p. 46.
165. Asbury, The Gangs of New York, pp. 269-70; Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners," p. 46.
166. Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners," p. 47; Randy D. McBee, "'He Likes Women More Than He Likes Drink and That is Quite Unusual': Working-Class Male Culture, Social Clubs, and the Dilemma of Heterosociality in the United States, 1890s-1930s," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1996, p. 4, 11.
167. Wasserman, "Cafes, Clubs, Corners," p. 47; Randy D. McBee, "'He Likes Women More Than He Likes Drink and That is Quite Unusual': Working-Class Male Culture, Social Clubs, and the Dilemma of Heterosociality in the United States, 1890s-1930s," unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri, 1996, p. 4, 11.
168. Frederic Milton Thrasher, The Gang; A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago (Chicago, 1927), pp. 234-35; McBee, "He Likes Women," pp. 17, 19.
169. Frederic Milton Thrasher, The Gang; A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago (Chicago, 1927), pp. 234-35; McBee, "He Likes Women," pp. 17, 19.
170. Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. 21.
171. Nasaw, Going Out, p. 13; Erenberg, Steppin' Out, pp. 18-21.
172. Nasaw, Going Out, p. 13; Erenberg, Steppin' Out, pp. 18-21.
173. Robert W. Synder, The Voice of the City: Vaudeville and Popular Culture in New York (New York, 1989), p. 8; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 14.
174. Robert W. Synder, The Voice of the City: Vaudeville and Popular Culture in New York (New York, 1989), p. 8; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 14.
175. Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. 18; Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 12; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 13.
176. Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. 18; Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 12; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 13.
177. Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. 18; Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 12; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 13.
178. Nasaw, Going Out p. 14; Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 10.
179. Nasaw, Going Out p. 14; Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 10.
180. Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 10; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 14.
181. Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 10; Nasaw, Going Out, p. 14.
182. Synder, The Voice of the City, p. 10.
183. On the proliferation and particulars of such establishments, see Nasaw, Going Out, pp. 13, 18.
184. Erenberg, Steppin' Out, p. 18.
185. Erenberg, Steppin Out, p. 18.
186. Laermans, "Learning to Consume," p. 89.
187. See Philip Thomason, "The Men's Quarter of Downtown Nashville," Tennessee Historical Quarterly 41 (1982): 48-36.
188. Henry Nash Smith, Democracy and the Novel: Popular Resistance to Classic American Writers (Oxford, 1978).
189. Michael Denning, Dime Novels and Working-Class Culture in America (New York, 1987), pp. 29-30.
190. W. H. Bishop, "Story-Paper Literature," Atlantic Monthly 44 (1879): 383-393, 384.
191. William Wallace Cook [John Milton Edwards, pseud.], The Fiction Factory (Ridgewood, 1912), p. 35.
192. Denning, Dime Novels, chps. 5-6.
193. Kimmel, Manhood in America, pp. 120, 141-3.
194. See Denning, Dime Novels, pp. 171-203, and the chapters on women's novels.
195. Ralph M. Hower, The History of Macy's of New York, 1859-1919; Chapters in the Evolution of a Department Store (Cambridge, MA, 1943), pp. 161, 235, 285.
196. Ralph M. Hower, The History of Macy's of New York, 1859-1919; Chapters in the Evolution of a Department Store (Cambridge, MA, 1943), pp. 161, 235, 285.
197. Robert W. Twyman, The History of Marshall Field & Co. (Philadelphia, 1954), p. 121.
198. National Clothier 6 (September 1920), p. 90.
199. Dameron, Men's Wear Merchandising, pp. 38, 131.
200. See Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, p. xviii; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 94-95; Victorian de Grazia, "Changing Consumption Regimes" & "Establishing the Modern Consumer Household," in Victoria de Grazia (with Ellen Furlough) ed., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996), pp. 11-24, 151-61, 155.
201. See Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, p. xviii; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 94-95; Victorian de Grazia, "Changing Consumption Regimes" & "Establishing the Modern Consumer Household," in Victoria de Grazia (with Ellen Furlough) ed., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996), pp. 11-24, 151-61, 155.
202. See Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, p. xviii; Rosenzweig, Eight Hours, pp. 94-95; Victorian de Grazia, "Changing Consumption Regimes" & "Establishing the Modern Consumer Household," in Victoria de Grazia (with Ellen Furlough) ed., The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective (Berkeley, 1996), pp. 11-24, 151-61, 155.
203. de Grazia, "Changing Consumption Regimes," pp. 11-24.
204. de Grazia, "Changing Consumption Regimes," p. 16.
205. Kathy Peiss, "Of Makeup and Men," pp. 1-6.
206. Horowitz, The Morality of Spending, 15, 55, 178.
207. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 66; Bowlby, Just Looking, p. 20.
208. Marchand, Advertising the American Dream, p. 66; Bowlby, Just Looking, p. 20.
209. Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, pp. 116-17.
210. I separate Marchand's magazines into "women's," "general interest," and "business" magazines based upon the periodical segmentation which appears in the back of each Printer's Ink of the period.
211. For example, the January 12, 1895 Forest & Stream carried a tobacco ad with the copy, "Yale Mixture: The Gentlemen's Smoke."
212. Field & Stream, May 1925, pp. 130, 101, 69.
213. Ads were only counted as targeted to a particular sex when accompanied by a drawing or photo of one particular sex, or if the copy specifically mentioned that the product was for men or women. All other goods were recorded as "gender-neutral" commodities (i.e., stoves, tools, foodstuffs, etc.). The first July issues of 1906 & 1925 were sampled to avoid the bias of self selection.
214. Helen Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, p. 178.
215. Printer's Ink, November 7 1929, p. 133.
216. Christine Frederick, Selling Mrs. Consumer (New York, 1929).
217. Printer's Ink (January 19, 1922): 60; Printer's Ink (January 19, 1922): 94.
218. Printer's Ink (January 19, 1922): 60; Printer's Ink (January 19, 1922): 94.
219. Printer's Ink (November 2, 1933): 42; Advertising Age (July 12, 1937): 14-15.
220. Printer's Ink (November 2, 1933): 42; Advertising Age (July 12, 1937): 14-15.
221. Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, pp. 81, 106.
222. Ladies Home Journal (editorial by Edward Bok) vol. 9 (1892); 12.
223. Damon-Moore, Magazines for the Millions, p. 98.
224. Printer's Ink (September 7): 5; (August 24): 5.
225. Here many scholars might point out that the concept of a "men's magazine" did not arise until Esquire came along; yet this does not explain why magazines like Field & Stream did not promote its audience more aggressively.
226. On the low male rate of kleptomania, see Abelman, When Ladies Go A-Thieving.
227. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufacturing Industries in the United States at the Eleventh Census.
228. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Eleventh Census; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on Manufacturing Industries in the United States at the Eleventh Census.
229. Ralph Merle Hower, History of Macy's of New York, 1858-1919 (Cambridge, 1943), p. 99.
230. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Report on Vital and Social Statistics in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890 vol. IV: IB (Washington, D.C., 1890), p. 698.
231. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, pt. 2. (Washington, D.C., 1976), p. 693.
232. See Banner, American Beauty, p. 192; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, p. 108.
233. See Banner, American Beauty, p. 192; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, p. 108.
234. Paul H. Nystrom, The Economics of Fashion (New York, 1928), p. 99; Max Von Boehn, Ornaments; Lace, Fans, Gloves, Walking-Sticks, Parasols, Jewelry, and Trinkets, translated by Das Beiwer der Mode (New York, 1970), p. 11.
235. Paul H. Nystrom, The Economics of Fashion (New York, 1928), p. 99; Max Von Boehn, Ornaments; Lace, Fans, Gloves, Walking-Sticks, Parasols, Jewelry, and Trinkets, translated by Das Beiwer der Mode (New York, 1970), p. 11.
236. John Chamberlain and James Henry Quilter, Knitted Fabrics (London, n.d.), pp. 80, 104-118, 62.
237. Valerie Steele, Fashion and Eroticism: Ideals of Feminine Beauty from the Victorian Era to the Jazz Age (New York, 1985), p. 73.
238. See Edgar R. Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days: A Happy Look at American Advertising, 1880-1930 (New York, 1959), pp. 36, 50; de Vries, Victorian Advertisements, p. 122.
239. See Edgar R. Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days: A Happy Look at American Advertising, 1880-1930 (New York, 1959), pp. 36, 50; de Vries, Victorian Advertisements, p. 122.
240. Boehn, Ornaments, p. 270.
241. Max Von Boehn, Modes and Manners of the Nineteenth Century, vol. 2. (New York, 1971), pp. 96-77.
242. Douglas W. Gorsline, What People Wore: A Visual History of Dress from Ancient Times to Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1952), pp. 196-202.
243. Gorsline, What People Wore, pp. 195-226.
244. Boehn, Ornaments, p. 136, 114-15.
245. Nystrom, The Economics of Fashion, p. 314.
246. Boehn, Ornaments, p. 238; de Vries, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 76, 87.
247. Boehn, Ornaments, p. 238; de Vries, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 76, 87.
248. Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 137; de Vries 1968, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 40-65, 105; Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days, pp. 35-66; Harper's Bazaar 23 (Feb 1, 1890): 96.
249. Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 137; de Vries 1968, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 40-65, 105; Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days, pp. 35-66; Harper's Bazaar 23 (Feb 1, 1890): 96.
250. Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 137; de Vries 1968, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 40-65, 105; Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days, pp. 35-66; Harper's Bazaar 23 (Feb 1, 1890): 96.
251. Gunn, The Artificial Face, p. 137; de Vries 1968, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 40-65, 105; Jones, Those Were the Good Old Days, pp. 35-66; Harper's Bazaar 23 (Feb 1, 1890): 96.
252. On the gendering of billiards, see Rader, American Sports, pp. 24-37.
253. Green, Fit for America, pp. 225-26.
254. de Vries, Victorian Advertisements, pp. 95-131, 11-32.
255. Hower, History of Macy's, pp. 438, 463.