Anthropogenic impact on the climate since man began to hunt

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

Volumn 139, Issue 1-2, 1998, Pages 1-14

  Burchard, I ^a  

^a Laboratory for Ecological Studies   (Kenya)

Author keywords

Anthropogenic impact; Climatic changes; Ecology; Fire; Water; Wildlife

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACT; BIOSPHERE; CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATIC CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; FIRE; HOLOCENE; HUMAN ACTIVITY; HUNTING; LARGE HERBIVORE; NATURE-SOCIETY RELATIONS;

AFRICA;

EID: 0032079614     PISSN: 00310182     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0031-0182(97)00128-4     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Abbadie, L., Marrioti, A., Menaut, J.-C., 1992. Independence of savanna grasses from soil organic matter for their nitrogen supply. Ecology 73, 608-613.
2. Abdel-Razik, M., Ayyad, M., Heneidy, S., 1988. Preference of grazing mammals for forage species and their nutritive value in a Mediterranean desert ecosystem. J. Arid Environ. 15, 297-305.
3. Abulfatih, H.A., Emara, H.A., El-Hashish, A., 1989. Influence of grazing on vegetation and soil of Asir highlands in south western Saudi Arabia, Arabian Gulf. J. Sci. Res. 7, 69-78.
4. Adesipe, Y.M., Oyedipe, E.O., 1985. Economic analysis of three portein levels for growth and reproduction in indigenous Nigeria Zebu cattle. World Rev. Anim. Prod. 21, 45-48.
5. Altmann, S.A., Post, D.G., Klein, D.F., 1987. Nutrients and toxins of plants in Amboseli, Kenya. Afr. J. Ecol. 25, 279-293.
6. Andreae, M.O., 1993. The influence of tropical biomass burning on climate and the atmospheric environment. In: Oremland, X. (Ed.), Biogeochemistry of Global Change: Radiatively Active Trace Gases, Chapman and Hall, New York, pp. 113-150.
7. Andreae, M.O., Fishman, J., Garstang, M., Goldammer, J.G., Justice, C.O. Levine, J.S. Scholes, R.J., Stocks, B.J., Thompson, A. M., van Wilgen, B. and the STARE TRACE-A SAFARI-92 Science Team. 1994. Biomass burning in the global environment: first results from the IGAC BIBEX field campain STARE TRACE-A SAFARI-92. In: Prinn, R.G., Global Atmospheric Biospheric Chemistry, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 83-101.
8. Andreae, M.O., Atlas, E., Harris, G.W., Helas, G., deKock, A., Koppermann, R., Mano, S., Pollock, W.H., Rudolph, J., Scharffe, D., Schebeske, G., Welling, M., 1996. Methyl halide emissions from savanna fires in southern Africa. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (D19), 23603-23613.
9. Armann, P., Hopcraft, D., McDonald, I., 1975. Nutritional studies on East African herbivores. Br. J. Nutr. 33, 265-276.
10. Batchelder, R.G., 1967. Spatial and temporal pattern of fire in the tropical world. In: Proceedings of the 6th Anniversary Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, Tall Timbers Research Station, Tallahassee, FL. pp. 171-190.
11. Boaz, N.T., Gazairy, W., El-Arnauti, A., 1979. New fossil finds from the Libyen Upper Neogene site of Sahabi. Nature 280, 137-140.
12. Bonsang, B., Boissard, C., LeCloarec, M.F., Rudolph, J., Lacaux, J.P., 1995. Methane, carbon monoxide and light non-methane hydrocarbon emissions from African savanna burnings during the FOS DECAFE experiment. J. Atm. Chem. 22, 149-162.
13. Bourliere, F., 1963. Observations on the ecology of some large African mammals. In: Howell, X, Bourliere, X. (Eds.), African Ecology and Human Evolulion. Aldine, Chicago, pp. 43-54.
14. Brain, C.K., Sillen, A., 1998. Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for earliest use of fire. Nature 336, 464-466.
15. Bryant, J.P., Kuropat, P.J., Cooper, S.M., Frisby, K., Owen-Smith, N., 1989. Resource availability hypothesis of plant antiherbivore defence testet in South African Savanna ecosystem. Nature 340, 227-228.
16. Bryant, J.P., Provenca, F.D., Pastor, J., Reichardt, P.B., Clausen, P.T., du Toit, J.T., 1991. Interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals mediated by secondary metabolites. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 22, 431-446.
17. Bryant, J.P., Reichardt, P.B., Clausen, T.P., 1992. Chemically mediated interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals. J. Range Manage. 45, 1824
18. Burchard, I., 1993. Beobachtungen zum Nährstoffkreislauf in afrikanischen Savannen. Peterm. Geogr. Mitt. 137 (6), 339-348.
19. Burchard, I., 1995. The Role of Penicillium clariforme (Mucorales. Deuteromycetes) in Food Selection, Digestion and Dung of African Ruminants. CCN Press, Nairobi. p. 30.
20. Butterworth, J.S., 1979. Chemical analysis of archaeological deposits from Thatswane Hills, Botswana. SAJS 75, 408-409.
21. 4 records and their implications with past climatic changes. In: IGBP GAIM Conference, Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
22. Chen, A.W., Griffin, D.M., 1966. Soil physical factors and the ecology of fungi. Further studies in relatively dry soil. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 49, 419-426.
23. Chesselet, P., Wolfsohn, M.M., Ellis, R.P., 1991. Comparative histochemical study of plant polyphenols in southern African grasses. J. Grassland Soc. S. Afr. 9 (3), 119-125.
24. Clairae, B., Delmas, R., Cros, B., Cachier, H., Buat-Menard, P., Servant, J., 1988. Formation and chemical composition of atmospheric aerosols in an equatorial forest area. J. Atm. Chem. 6, 301-322.
25. Coe, M., 1981. Body size and the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna. Palaeoecol. Afr. 13, 139-145.
26. Cook, L., 1939. A contribution to our information on grass burning. SAJS XXXVI, 270-282.
27. Cooper, S.M., Owen-Smith, N., 1985. Condensed tannins deter feeding by browsing ruminants in a South African savanna, Oecologia 67, 142-146.
28. Crutzen, P., Andreae, M.O., 1990. Biomass burning in the tropics: impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles. Science 250, 1669-1678.
29. Dangerfield, J.M., Perkins, J.S., Kanuda, S.K., 1990. Shoot characteristics of Acacia torfilis (Forsk.) in wildlife and rangeland habitats of Botswana, Afr. J. Ecol. 34, 167-176.
30. Dechamps, R., 1984. Evidence of bush fires during the Pliocene Pleistocene in Africa (Omo and Sahabi) with the Aid of fossil woods. Palaeoecol. Afr. 16, 291-294.
31. Delmas, R., Lacaux, P., Manaut, J.C., Abbadie, L., LeRoux, X., Helas, G., Lobert, J., 1995. Nitrogen compound emission from biomass burning in tropical african savanna FOS DECAFE 1991 experiment (Lamto, Ivory Coast). J. Atm. Chem. 22, 175-193.
32. Denbow, J.W., 1979. Cenchrus ciliaris. an ecological indicator of Iron Age middens using aerial photography in Eastern Botswana, SAJS 75, 405-408.
33. De Noblet, N., Foley, J., Claussen, M., Prentice, I.C., 1995. Palaeostates of the vegetation atmosphere system: model experiments on orbital forcing and vegetation feedback. In: IGBP GAIM Conference, Garmisch-Partenkirchen.
34. Dougall, H.W., Glover, P.E., 1964. On the chemical composition of Themeda triandra and Cynodon dactylon. E. Afr. Wildl. J. 11, 86-121.
35. Dougall, H.W., Drysdale, V.M., Glover, P.E., 1964. The chemical composition of Kenya browse and pasture herbage. E. Afr. Wildl. J. II, 67-70.
36. Du Toil, E.W., Wolfsohn, M.M., Ellis, R.P., 1992. The presence of condensed tannin in the leaves of Eulalila villosa. J. Grassland Soc. S. Afr. 8 (2), 75-76.
37. Edwards, W.E., 1967. The Late Pleistocene extinctions and diminution in size of many mammalian species. In: Martin, X., Wright, X. (Eds.), Pleistocene Extinctions. The Search for a Cause. Yale University Press, CT. pp. 141-154.
38. Ellis, R.P., 1990. Tannin-like substances in grass leases. In: Leistner, X. (Ed.), Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa no. 59. National Botanical Institute of South Africa, pp. 1-80.
39. Foley, J.A., Kutzbach, J.E., Coe, M.T., Levis, S., 1994. Feedbacks between climate and boreal forests during the Holocene epoch. Nature 371, 52-54.
40. Gichohi, H., 1990. The effects of fire and grazing on grasslands of Nairobi National Park. MSc Thesis, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
41. Gowlett, J.A.J., Harris, J.W.K., Walton, D., Wood, B.A., 1981. Early archaeological sites, hominid remains and traces of fire from Chesowanja, Kenya. Nature 294, 125-129.
42. Grant, C.C., Meissner, H.H., Schultheiss, W.A., The nutritive value of veld as indicated by faecal phosphorus and nitrogen and its relation to the condition and movement of prominent ruminants during the 1992-1993 drought in the Kruger National Park, 1995. Koedoe 38, 17-31.
43. Griffin, D.M., 1972. Ecology of Soil Fungi. Chapman and Hall, London.
44. Guthrie, R.D., 1984. Mosaics, allelochemics and nutrients: an ecological theory of Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions. In: Klein, M. (Ed.), The Global Model. Quaternary Extinctions. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ, pp. 259-298.
45. Gutterman, Y., 1996. Temperatures during storage, light and wetting affecting caryopses germinability of Schismus arabicus, a common desert annual grass. J. Arid Environ. 33, 73-85.
46. Hackstein, J.H.P., van Alen, T.A., 1996. Faecal methanogenes and vertebrate evolution. Evolution 50 2, 559-572.
47. Hatton, J.C., Smart, N.D.E., 1984. The effect of long-term exclusion of large herbivore on soil nutrient status in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, Afr. J. Ecol. 22, 23-30.
48. Helas, G., Lobert, J., Scharffe, D., Schäfer, L., Goldammer, J. Bandet, J., Lo-Ajavon, A., Aluma. B., Lacaux, J.P., Delmas R., Andreae, M.O., 1995 Airborn measurements of savanna fire emissions and the regional distribution of pyrogenic pollutants over Western Africa. J. Ann. Chem. 22, 217-239.
49. Hoffmann, M.T., Midgeley, G.E., Cowling, R.M., 1994. Plant richness is negatively related to energy availability in semi-arid southern Africa. Biodiversity Lett. 2, 35-38.
50. Hofmann, R.R., 1973. The Ruminant Stomach. Hast African Literature Bureau, Nairobi.
51. Hofmann, R.R., 1988. Evolutionary steps of ecophysicological adaption and diversification of ruminants: a comparative view of their digestive system. Oecologia 78, 443-457.
52. van Hoven, W., 1984. Trees secret warning system against browsers. CUSTOS 13 (5), 11-16.
53. van Hoven, W., 1991. Mortalities in Kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) populations related to chemical defence in trees, J. Afr. Zool. 105, 141-145.
54. van Hoven, W., Furstenberg, 1992. The use of condensed tanin as a reference in determining its influence on rumen fermentation. Comp Biochem. Physiol. 101A (2) 381-385.
55. Hungate, R.E., 1966. The Rumen and its Microbes, Academic Press, New York.
56. Jachmann, H., Bell, R.H.V., 1985. Utilization by elephants of Brachystegia woodlands of the Kasungu National Park, Malawi. Afr. J. Ecol. 23, 245-258.
57. Klug, F., Franz, H., Bethge, B., Jansch, G., Lemme, F., 1989a. Auswirkungen des Fütterungsniveaus in der Frühlaktation auf die Gesundheit und die Konzeptionsergebnisse von Milchkühen bei Gruppenfütterung. Tierzucht 43, 56-57.
58. Klug, F., Franz, H., Jansch, G., 1989b. Der Einfluß der Grobfutterversorgung auf die Gesundheit und Fruchtbarkeit von Kühen. Tierzucht 43, 419-420.
59. Kulhhusch, T.A.J., Andreae, M.O., Cachier, H., Goldammer, J.G., Lacaux, J.P., Shea, R., Crutzen, P.J., 1996. Black carbon formation by savanna fires: measurements and implications for the global carbon cycle, J. Geophys. Res. 101 (D19). 23651-23665.
60. Kutzbach, J., Bonan, G., Foley, J., Harrison, S.P., 1996. Vegetation and soil feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing in the early to middle Holocene. Nature 384, 623-626.
61. Lacaux, J.-P., Cachier, H., Delmas, R., 1993. Biomass burning in Africa: an overview of its impact on atmospheric chemistry. In: Crutzen, P.J., Goldammer, J.G. (Eds.), Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires, Wiley, New York, pp. 159-191.
62. Lucaux, J.P., Brustet, J.M., Delmas, R., Menaut, J.C., Abbadie, L., Bonsang, B., Cachier, H., Baudet, J., Andreae, MO., Helas, G., 1995. Biomass burning in the tropical savannas of Ivory Coast: an overview of the field experiment fire of savannas (FOS DECAFE 91). J. Atm. Chem. 22, 195-216.
63. Lal, M. Cubasch, U., Voss, R., Waszkewitz, J., 1995. Effect of transient increase in greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols on monsoon climate. Curr. Sci. 69, 752-763.
64. Langer, P., 1994. Food and digestion of Cenozoic mammals in Europe. In: Chivers, L. (Eds.), The Digestive System in Mammals. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. pp. 9-24.
65. Leakey, M., 1995. The farthest horizon. Natl. Geogr. Sept. 38-51.
66. Leakey, M., Harris, J.M., 1992. Past biodiversity in the Turkana Basin. In: Bennun, X. (Ed.), Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa. Proceedings of the conference held at the National Museums of Kenya 1992. Aman, Crafter, pp. 13-23.
67. Le Canutt, P., Andreae, M.O., Harris, G.W., Wienholf, F.G., Zenker, T., 1996. Airborne studies of emissions from savanna fire in southern Africa: I. Aerosol emissions measured with a laser-optical particle counter. J. Geopliys. Res. 101 (DI9). 23615-23630.
68. 210Po in savanna burning plumes. J. Atm. Chem. 22, 111-122.
69. Legge, A.J., Rowley-Conway, P.A., 1987. Gazellenjagd im steinzeitlichen Syrien. Spektr. Wiss. 10, 66-74.
70. Le Hourréou, H.N., 1980. The role of browse in the management of natural grazing lands. In: Le Hourdou (Ed.), Browse in Africa. ILCA. Addis Ababa. pp. 329-338.
71. Lelieveld, J., Crutzen, P.J., 1991. The role of clouds in tropospheric photochemistry. J. Atm. Chem. 12, 229-267.
72. Leuthold, W., 1996. Recovery of woody vegetation in Tsavo National Park. Kenya, 1970-1994. Afr. J. Ecol. 34, 101-112.
73. Lorius, C., Oeschger, H., 1994. Palaco-perspectives: reducing uncertainties in global change? AMBIO 23, 30-36.
74. Lovelock, J., 1988. The Ages of Gaia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
75. Lusigi, W.J., 1977. Planning human activities on protected natural ecosystems. Ph.D thesis. Institute of Landscape Ecology, Freising, Germany.
76. Madani, M.O.K., Yagoub, B.A., Zawia, M.T., 1985. The mating of Libyan fat-tailed ewe lambs. Br. Vet. J. 141 (4), 401-408.
77. Martin, P.S., 1984. Prehistoric overkill: the global model. In: Klein, M. (Ed.), Quaternary Extinctions. Arizona Press. Tucson, AZ, pp. 354-403.
78. Matheson, W., Ringrose, S., 1994. Assessment of degradation features and their development into the post-drought period in the west-central Sahel using Landsat MSS. J. Arid Environ. 26, 171-181.
79. Meiklejohn, J., 1955. The effect of bush burning on the microflora of a Kenya upland soil. J. Soil Sci, 6, 111-118.
80. Menaut, J.C., Abbadie, L., Lavenu, F., Londjani, P., Podaire, A., 1991. Biomass burning in West African savannas. In: Levine, X. (Ed.), Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric. Climatic and Biospheric Implications. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 134-142.
81. Micheisen, A., Rosendahl, S., 1990. Mycorrhizal symbiosis in Acacia Commiphora bushland in Somalia and the significance of VA-mycorrhizal fungi for re-vegetation of degraded semiarid areas. Mitt. Inst. Allg. Bot. Hamburg Bd. 23a. pp. 387-394 and in Proceedings of the Twelfth Plenary Meeting of AEFAT.
82. O'Connor, T.G., 1996. Hierarchical control over seedling recruitment of the bunch-grass Themeda triandra in a semi-arid savanna. J. Appl. Ecol. 33, 1094-1106.
83. Owen-Smith, N., 1989. Megafauna extinctions: the conservation message from 11,000 years BP. Conserv. Biol. 3 (4), 405-412.
84. Owen-Smith, N., 1991. Grazers and browsers: ecological and social contrasts among African ruminants. Ungulates 91, 175-181.
85. Owen-Smith, N., 1993. Woody plants, browsers and tannins in southern African savannas. SAJS 89 (10), 505-510.
86. Owen-Smith, N., Cooper, S.M., 1987a. Assessing food preferences of ungulates by acceptability indices. J. Wildl. Manage. 51, 372-378.
87. Owen-Smith, N., Cooper, S.M., 1987b, Palatability of woody plants to browsing ruminants in a South African savanna, Ecology 68 (2), 381-385.
88. Owen-Smith, N., Cooper, S.M., 1988. Plant palatability assessment and its implications for plant herbivore relations. J. Grassland Soc. S. Afr. 5 (2), 72-75.
89. Overpeck, J.T., 1996. Warm climate surprises. Science 271, 1820-1821.
90. Pachur, H.-J., 1987. Vergessene Flüsse und Seen der Ostsahara. Geowissenschaften in unserer Zeit 2, 55-64.
91. Pachur, H.-J., 1991. Tethering stones as palacoenvironmental indicators. SAHARA 4, 13-33.
92. Pachur, H.-J., Röper, H.P., 1984. The Libyan (Western) desert and the Northern Sudan during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Berl. Geowiss. Abhandl. (A) 50, 249-284.
93. Pachur, H.J., Kröpelin, S., 1987. Wadi Hower: Paleoclimatic evidence from an extinct river system in the southeastern Sahara. Science 237, 298-300.
94. Partridge, T.C., Bond, G.C., Hartnady, J.H., deMenocal, P.B. and Ruddiman, W.F., 1996a. Climatic effects of late neogene textonism and volcanism. In: Vrba, E., Denton, G.H., Partridge, T.C., Burckle, L.H., Palaeoclimate and Evolution. Yale University Press, London, pp. 8-23.
95. Partridge, T.C., Wood, B.A., deMenocal, P.B., 1996. The influence of global climatic change and regional uplift on large-mammalian evolution in East and Southern Africa. In: Vrba, E., Denton, G.H., Partridge, T.C., Burckle L.H. (Eds.), Palaeoclimate and Evolution. Yale University Press. New Haven, pp. 331-355.
96. Petit-Maire, N., Fontugne, M., Rouland, C., 1991. Atmospheric methane ratio and environmental changes in the Sahara and Sahel during the last 130 kyr. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 86, 197-204.
97. Peters, J., 1992. Late Quaternary mammalian remains from central and eastern Sudan and their palaeoenvironmental significance. Palaeoecol. Afr. 23, 91-115.
98. Pillay, Y., Diab, R.D., Sokolic, F., 1995. Ozone Maxima off the Eastcoast of South Africa: the role of biomass burning. SAJS 91, 609-613.
99. Prinn, R.G., 1994. The interactive atmosphere: global atmospheric biospheric chemistry. AMBIO 23, 50-61.
100. Sadleir, R.M.F.S., 1969a. The Ecology of Reproduction in Wild and Domestic Animals. Methuen. London.
101. Sadleir, R.M.F.S., 1969b. The role of nutrition in the reproduction of wild mammals. J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 6, 39-48.
102. Sagan, C., Toon, O.B., Poilack, J.B., 1979. Anthropogenic albedo changes and the Earth's climate. Science 206, 1363-1368.
103. Schnell, R., 1974. Biogenic and Inorganic Sources for Ice Nuclei. Interim Report to the Rockefeller Foundation New York.
104. Schnell, R., 1975. Biogenic Ice Nuclei Removal by Overgrazing. Final Report to the Rockefeller Foundation New York.
105. Schnell, R., Vali, G., 1976. Biogenic ice nuclei. Part 1: Terrestrial and marine sources. J. Atm. Sci. 33, 1554-1564.
106. Schüle, W., 1990a. Landscapes and climate in prehistory: interactions of wildlife, man and fire. In: Goldammer, J.G., Fire in the Tropical Biota. Springer. Berlin, pp. 273-318.
107. Schüle, W., 1990b. Human evolution, animal behaviour and quaternary extinctions: a paleo-ccology of hunting. HOMO 413, 228-250.
108. Schüle, W., 1992. Anthropogenic trigger effects on Pleistocene climate? Global Ecol. Biogeog. Lett. 2, 33-36.
109. Schwartz, S.E., Andreae, M.O., 1996. Uncertainty in climate change caused by aerosols. Science 272, 1121-1122.
110. Seiler, W., Conrad, R., Scharffe, D., 1984. Field studies of methane emission from termite nests into the atmosphere and measurements of methane uptake by tropical soils. J. Atm. Chem. 1, 171-186.
111. Shaltout, K.-H., El-Ghareb, R., 1985. Effect of protection on the phytomass and primary production of ecosystems of the western Mediterranean desert of Egypt. I. Ecosystem of non-saline depressions. Bull. Fac. Sci. Univ. Alexandria 25, 109-131.
112. Shaltout, K.H., Halawany, E., El-Kady, H.F., 1996. Consequences of protection from grazing on diversity and abundance of the coastal lowland vegetation in Eastern Saudi Arabia. Biodiversity Consen. 5, 27-36.
113. Shaw, P.A., Thomas, D.S.G., 1996 The Quaternary palaeoenvironmental history of the Kalahari, southern Africa. J. Arid Environ. 32, 9-22.
114. Siegfried, W.R., 1981. The incidence of veld-fire in the Etosha National Park, 1970-1979. Madoqua 12 (4), 225-230.
115. Stanley-Price, M.R., 1974. The feeding ecology of Coke's harte-beest. Alcelaphus buselaphus cokei Günther in Kenya. Ph.D thesis. University of Oxford.
116. Stelfox, B., 1986. Effects of livestock enclosures (bomas) on the vegetation of the Athi Kapiti Plains, Kenya. Afr. J. Ecol. 24, 41-45.
117. Street-Perrott, E.A., 1992. Tropical wetland sources. Nature 355, 23-24.
118. Swift, M.J., Heal, O.W., Anderson, J.M., 1979. Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems, Blackvvell Scientific, Oxford.
119. Thomasson, J.R., 1987. Fossil grasses: 1820-1986 and beyond. In: Soderstrom, X., Hilu. X., Camphell, X., Backworth, X. (Eds.). Grass Systematics and Evolution. Smithonian Institution Press. Washington, pp. 159-167.
120. Tieszen, E.E., Imbamba, S.K., 1980. Photosynthetic systems. carbon isotope discrimination and herbivore selectivity in Kenya. Afr. J. Appl. Ecol. 24, 991-1000.
121. Tolsma, D.J., Ernst, W.H.O., Verwey, R.A., 1987. Nutrients in soil and vegetation around two artilical waterpoints in eastern Botswana. J. Ecol. 75, 755-770.
122. Topp, W., 1981. Biologie der Bodenorganismen. UTB. Quelle und Meyer, Heidelberg.
123. Trollope, W.S.W., Trollope, L.A., Potgieter, A.L.F., Zambatis, N., 1996. SAFARI-92 characterization of biomass and fire behavior in the small experimental burns in Kruger National Park. J. Geophys. Res. 101 (D19), 23531-23539.
124. Tutin, C.E.G., White, L.J.T., Mackanga-Missandzou, A., 1996. Lightning strike burns large forest tree in Lopé Reserve. Gabon. Glob. Ecol. Biogeog. Lett. 5, 36-41.
125. UNESC, 1979. Tropical grazing land ecosystems. UNESCO. Paris.
126. van Wilgen, B.W., Everson, C.S., Trollope, W.S.W., 1990. Fire management in Southern Africa: some examples of current objectives, practices and problems. In: Fire in the Tropical Biota. Springer. Berlin, pp. 179-215.
127. Wedin, D.A., Tilman, D., 1996. Influence of nitrogen loading and species composition on the carbon balance of grasslands. Science 274, 1720-1723.
128. 2 and other trace gases to the atmosphere from fires in the tropics, based on the FAO statistics for the period 1975-1980. In: Gololammer, X. (Ed.), Fire in the Tropical Biota. Springer, Berlin, pp. 440-462.
129. Westbroek, P., Collins, M.J., Jausen, F.J.H., Talbot, L.M., 1993. World archaeology and global change: did our ancestors ignite the Ice Age. World Archaeol. 25 (1), 122-133.
130. Western, D., 1979 Size, life history and ecology in mammals. Afr. J. Ecol. 17, 185-204.
131. White, F., 1983. The vegetation of Africa: a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO AETFAT UNSO vegetation map of Africa. UNESCO, Paris.
132. Whitham, T.G., Maschinski. J. Larson, K.C., Paige, K.N., 1991. Plant responses to herbivory: the continuum from negative to positive and underlying mechanisms. In: Price, X., Lweisohn, X., Fernandes, X., Benson, X. (Eds.), Plant Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions. Wiley, New York.
133. Williams, O.B., 1981. Evolution of grazing systems. In: Morley, X. (Ed.), Grazing Animals, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 1-12.
134. Zahn, R., 1994. East flickers in the Tropics. Nature 372. 621-622.
135. Zaharn, M.A., Younes, H.A., 1990. Hema system: traditional conservation of plant life in Saudi Arabia. J. KAU Sci. 2, 19-41.
136. Zimov, S.A., Chupryuin, V.J., Oreshko, A.P., Chapin III, F.S., Reynolds, J.F., Chapin, M.C., 1995. A model of the herbivore-driven biome shift at the end of the Pleistocene. In: IGBP GAIM Conference, Garmisch-Partenkirchen.