Gene expression during amphibian limb regeneration

International Review of Cytology

Volumn 180, Issue , 1998, Pages 1-50

  Ferretti, Jacqueline Géraudie Patrizia ^a,b  

^a Université René Descartes   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Blastema; Cytoskeleton; Extracellular matrix; Growth factors; Homeobox; Limb; Regeneration; Retinoids; Urodeles; Wound epidermis

Indexed keywords

RETINOID;

AMPHIBIA; ANIMAL TISSUE; BLASTEMA; DEVELOPMENTAL GENETICS; EPIDERMIS; HOMEOBOX; LIMB REGENERATION; MESENCHYME; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; WOUND;

EID: 0031937495     PISSN: 00747696     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (259)

1. Akimenko, M. A., and Ekker, M. (1995). Anterior duplication of the Sonic hedgehog expression pattern in the pectoral fin buds of zebrafish treated with retinoic acid. Dev. Biol. 170,243-247.
2. Akimenko, M. A., Johnson, S. L., Westerfield, M., and Ekker, M. (1994a). Differential induction of four msx homeobox genes during fin development and regeneration in zebrafish. Development 121, 347-357.
3. Akimenko, M. A., Ekker, M., Wegner, J., Lin, W., and Westerfield, M. (1994b). Combinatorial expression of three zebrafish genes related to distal-less: Part of a homeobox gene code for the head. J. Neurosci. 14, 3475-3486.
4. Albert, P., and Boilly, B. (1988). Effect of transferrin on amphibian limb regeneration: A blastema cell culture study. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 197, 193-196.
5. Albert, P., Boilly, B., Courty, J., and Barritault, D. (1987). Stimulation in cell culture of mesenchymal cells of newt limb blastemas by EDGF I or II (basic or acidic FGF). Cell Differ. 21, 63-68.
6. Andéol, Y., Gusse, M., and Méchali, M. (1990). Characterization and expression of a Xenopus ras during oogenesis and development. Dev. Biol. 139, 24-34.
7. Astrom, A., Pettersson, U., and Voorhees, J. J. (1992). Structure of the human cellular retinoic acid-binding protein II gene. Early transcriptional regulation by retinoic acid. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 25251-25255.
8. Barrandon, Y. (1993). The epidermal stem cell: An overview. In "Epithelial Stem Cells. Part 1. Keratinocytes. Seminars in Developmental Biology" (C. Potten, Ed.). Academic Press, New York.
9. Beauchemin, M., and Savard, P. (1992). Two distal-less related homeobox-containing genes expressed in regeneration blastemas of the newt. Dev. Biol. 154, 55-65.
10. Beauchemin, M., Noiseux, N., Tremblay, M., and Savard, P. (1994). Expression of Hox A11 in the limb and the regeneration blastema of adult newt. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 38, 641-649.
11. Belleville, S., Beauchemin, M., Tremblay, M., Noiseux, N., and Savard, P. (1992). Homeobox-containing genes in the newt are organized in clusters similar to other vertebrates. Gene 114, 179-186.
12. Boilly, B., and Albert, P. (1988). Blastema cell proliferation in vitro: Effects of limb amputation on the mitogenic activity of spinal cord extracts. Biol. Cell 62, 183-187.
13. Boilly, B., and Albert, P. (1990). In vitro control of blastema cell proliferation by extracts from epidermal cap and mesenchyme of regenerating limbs of axolotls. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 198, 443-447.
14. Boilly, B., Cavanaugh, K. P., Thomas, D., Hondermarck, H., Bryant, S. V., and Bradshaw, R. A. (1991). Acidic fibroblast growth factor is present in regenerating limb blastemas of axolotls and binds specifically to blastema tissue. Dev. Biol. 145, 302-310.
15. Boilly, B., Oudghir, M., Deudon, E., Boilly-Marer, Y., and Hondermarck, H. (1995). Nerve dependent sulphated glycosaminoglycan synthesis in limb regeneration of the newt Pleuradeles wall. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 204, 509-512.
16. Boncinelli, E., Simeone, A., Acampora, D., and Mavilio, F. (1991). Hox gene activation by retinoic acid. Trends Genet. 7, 329-334.
17. Brockes, J. P. (1984). Mitogenic growth factors and nerve dependence of limb regeneration. Science 225, 1280-1287.
18. Brockes, J. P. (1987). The nerve dependence of amphibian limb regeneration. J. Exp. Biol. 132, 79-91.
19. Brockes, J. P. (1989). Retinoids, homeobox genes, and limb morphogenesis. Neuron 2,1285-1294.
20. Brockes, J. P. (1990). Retinoic acid and limb regeneration, J. Cell Sei. Suppl. 13, 191-198.
21. Brockes, J. P. (1992). Introduction of a retinoid reporter gene into the urodele limb blastema. Proc. Nat!. Acad. Sei. USA 89, 11386-11390.
22. Brockes, J. P. (1994). New approaches to amphibian limb regeneration. Trends Genet. 10, 169-173.
23. Brockes, J. P. (1998). Progenitor cells for regeneration: Origin by reversal of the differentiated state. In "Cell and Molecular Biology of Regeneration" (P. Ferretti and J. Géraudie, Eds.), pp. 63-77. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
24. Brockes, J. P., and Kintner, C. R. (1986). Glial growth factor and nerve-dependent proliferation in the regeneration blastema of urodele amphibians. Cell 45, 301-306.
25. Brown, R., and Brockes, J. P. (1991). Identification and expression of a regeneration-specific homeobox gene in the newt limb blastema. Development 111, 489-496.
26. Bryant, S. V., and Gardiner, D. M. (1992). Retinoic acid, local cell-cell interactions, and pattern formation in vertebrate limbs. Dev. Biol. 152, 1-25.
27. Bulfone, A., Kim, H. J., Puelles, L., Porteus, M. H., Grippo, J. F., and Rubenstein, J. L. (1993). The mouse Dlx-2 (Tes-1) gene is expressed in spatially restricted domains of the forebrain, face and limbs in midgestation mouse embryos. Mech. Dev. 40, 129-140.
28. Busse, U., and Seguin, C. (1993). Isolation of cDNAs for two closely related members of the axolotl Wnt family, Awnt-5A and Awnt-5B, and analysis of their expression during development. Mech. Dev. 40, 63-72.
29. Cameron, J. A., Hilgers, A. R., and Hintenberger, T. J. (1986). Evidence that reserve cells are a source of a regenerated adult newt muscle in vitro. Nature (London) 321, 607-610.
30. Carlone, R. L., and Mescher, A. L. (1985). Trophic factors from nerves. In "Regulation of Vertebrate Limb Regeneration" (R. E. Sicard, Ed.), pp. 93-105. Oxford Univ. Press, London.
31. Carlson, B. M. (1979). The relationship between the tissue and epimorphic regeneration of muscle. In "Muscle Regeneration" (A. Mauro, Ed.), pp. 57-71. Raven Press, New York.
32. Carlson, B. M. (1988). Some aspects of regeneration in skeletal and cardiac muscle. In "Recent Trends in Regeneration Reseach" (V. Kiortsis, S. Koussoulakos, and H. Wallace, Eds.), NATO ASI Series, Life Sciences, Vol. 12, pp. 147-157. Plenum.
33. Casimir, C. M., Gates, P. B., Patient, R. K., and Brockes, J. P. (1988). Evidence for dedifferentiation and metaplasia in amphibian limb regeneration from inheritance of DNA methylation. Development 104, 657-668.
34. Castilla, M., and Tassava, R. A. (1992). Extraction of the WE3 antigen and comparison of reactivities of mAb WE3 and WE4 in adult newt regenerate epithelium and body tissues. In "Monographs in Developmental Biology" (H. W. Sauer, Ed.), Vol. 23, pp. 116-130. Karger, Basel.
35. Caubit, X., Nicolas, S., Shi, D. L., and Le Parco, Y. (1997). Reactivation and graded expression pattern of Wnt-10a gene during early regeneration stages of adult tail in Amphibian urodele Pleurodeles waltl. Dev. Dyn. 208, 139-148.
36. Charité, J., de Graaff, W., and Deschamps, J. (1994). Ectopic expression of Hoxb-8 causes duplication of the ZPA in the forelimb and homeotic transformation of axial structures. Cell 78, 589-601.
37. Choo, A. F., Logan, D. M., and Rathbone, M. (1978). Nerve trophic effects: An in vitro assay for factors involved in regulation of protein synthesis in regenerating amphibians limbs. J. Exp. Zool 206, 347-354.
38. Cohen, S. M., Bronner, G., Kuttner, F., Jurgens, G., and Jackle, H. (1989). Distal-less encodes a homeodomain protein required for limb development in Drosophila. Nature 338,432-434.
39. Colquhoun, J. E., and Dresden, M. H. (1983). Prolyl hydroxylase activity during newt forelimb regeneration. Dev. Biol. 95, 193-199.
40. Corcoran, J. P. T., and Ferretti, P. (1997). Keratin 8 and 18 expression in mesenchymal progenitor cells of regenerating limbs is associated with cell proliferation and differentiation. Dev. Dyn. 210, 355-370.
41. Crews, L., Gates, P. B., Brown, R., Joliot, A., Foley, C., Brockes, J. P., and Gann, A. A. (1995). Expression and activity of the newt Msx-1 gene in relation to limb regeneration. Proc. R. Soc. London B. Biol. Sei. 259, 161-171.
42. Crossley, P. H., Minowada, G. Macarthur, C. A., and Martin, G. R. (1996). Roles for FGF8 in the induction, initiation, and maintenance of chick limb development. Cell 84,127-136.
43. Daniels, K., and Solursh, M. (1991). Modulation of chondrogenesis by the cytoskeletal and extracellular matrix. J. Cell Sei. 100, 249-254.
44. Davidson, D. R., Crawley, A., Hill, R. E., and Tickle, C. (1991). Position-dependent expression of two related homeobox genes in developing vertebrate limbs. Nature (London) 352, 429-431.
45. Davis, A. P., and Capecchi, M. R. (1994). Axial homeosis and appendicular skeleton defects in mice with a targeted disruption of hoxd-11. Development 120, 2187-2198.
46. Davis, A. P., Witte, D. P., Hsieh-Li, H. M., Potter, S. S., and Capecchi, M. (1995). Absence of radius and ulna in mice lacking hoxa-11 and hoxd-11. Nature (London) 375, 791-795.
47. Del Rio-Tsonis, K., Washabaugh, C. H., and Tsonis, P. A. (1992). The mutant axolotl short toes exhibits impaired limb regeneration and abnormal basement membrane formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 89, 5502-5506.
48. Diaz-Benjumena, F. J., Cohen, B., and Cohen, S. M. (1994). Cell interaction between compartments establishes the proximal-distal axis of Drosophila legs. Nature 372, 175-179.
49. Dinsmore, C. E., and Mescher, A. L. (1998). The role of the nervous system in regeneration. In "Cell and Molecular Biology of Regeneration" (P. Ferretti and J. Géraudie, Eds.), pp. 79-108. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
50. Dollé, P., Price, M., and Duboule, D. (1992). Expression of the murine Dlx-1 homeobox gene during facial, ocular and limb development. Differentiation 49, 93-99.
51. Dollé, P., Dierich, A., LeMeur, M., Schimmang, T., Schuhbaur, B., Chambon, P., and Duboule, D. (1993). Disruption of the Hoxd-13 gene induces localized heterochrony leading to mice with neotenic limbs. Cell 75, 431-441.
52. Donaldson, D. J., and Mahan, J. T. (1987). Newt epidermal cell migration in vitro and in vivo appears to involve Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser receptors. J. Cell Sei. 87, 525-534.
53. Donovan, M., Olofsson, B., Gustafson, A. L., Dencker, L., and Eriksson, U. (1995). The cellular retinoic acid binding proteins. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 53, 459-465.
54. Dresden, M. H. (1969). Denervation effects on newt limb regeneration: DNA, RNA and protein synthesis. Dev. Biol. 19, 311-320.
55. Dresden, M. H., and Gross, J. (1970). The collagenolytic enzyme of the regenerating limb of the newt Triturits viridescens. Dev. Biol. 22, 129-137.
56. Duellman, W. E., and Trueb, L. (1986). "Biology of amphibians." McGraw-Hill, New York.
57. Eager, N. S., Rowe, A., and Brickell, P. M. (1991). A member of the chicken RXR family of nuclear receptors activates transcription in response to retinoic acid. FEBS Lett. 292, 103-106.
58. Eichele, G., and Thaller, C. (1987). Characterization and concentration gradients of a morphogenetically active retinoid in the chick limb bud. J. Cell Biol. 105,1917-1923.
59. Endo, T., Yokoyama, H., Tamura, K., and Ide, H. (1997). Shh expression in developing and regenerating limb buds of Xenopus laevis. Dev. Dyn. 209, 227-232.
60. Estrada, C. M., Park, C. D., Castilla, M., and Tassava, R. A. (1993). Monoclonal antibody WE6 identifies an antigen that is up-regulated in the wound epithelium of newts and frogs. In "Limb Development and Regeneration, Part A" (J. F. Fallon, P. F. Goetinck, R. O. Kelley, and D. L. Stocum, Eds.), pp. 271-282. Wiley, New York.
61. Fallon, J. F., Lopez, A., Ros, M., Savage, M. P., Olwin, B. B., and Simandl, B. K. (1994). FGF-2: Apical ectodermal ridge growth signal for chick limb development. Science 264,104-107.
62. Favier, B., LeMeur, M., Chambon, P., and Dollé, P. (1995). Axial skeleton homeosis and forelimb malformations in Hoxd-11 mutant mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 92,310-314.
63. Fekete, D., and Brockes, J. P. (1987). A monoclonal antibody detects a difference in the cellular composition of developing and regenerating limbs of newts. Development 99, 589-602.
64. Fekete, D., Ferretti, P., Gordon, H., and Brockes, J. P. (1987). Ontogeny of nerve dependence of amphibian limb regeneration. In "From Message to Mind: Directions in Developmental Neurobiology" (S. S. Easter, K. F. Barrald, and B. M. Carlson, Eds.), pp. 29-42. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
65. Ferretti, P., and Brockes, J. P. (1988). Culture of newt cells from different tissues and their expression of a regeneration associated antigen. J. Exp. Zool. 247, 77-91.
66. Ferretti, P., and Brockes, J. P. (1990). The monoclonal antibody 22/18 recognizes a conformational change in an intermediate filament of the newt, Notophthalmus viridescens, during limb regeneration. Cell Tissue Res. 259, 483-493.
67. Ferretti, P., and Brockes, J. P. (1991). Cell origin and identity in limb regeneration and development. Clia 4, 214-224.
68. Ferretti, P., and Ghosh, S. (1997). Expression of regeneration-associated cytoskeletal proteins reveals differences and similarities between regenerating organs. Dev. Dyn. 210, 288-304.
69. Ferretti, P., and Tickle, C. (1997). The limbs. In "Embryos, Genes and Birth Defects" (P. Thorogood, Ed.), pp. 101-132. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
70. Ferretti, P., Fekete, D. M., Patterson, M., and Lane, E. B. (1989). Transient expression of simple epithelial keratins by mesenchymal cells of regenerating newt limb. Dev. Biol. 133, 415-424.
71. Ferretti, P., Brockes, J. P., and Brown, R. (1991). A new type II keratin restricted to normal and regenerating limbs and tails is responsive to retinoic acid. Development 111, 497-507.
72. Ferretti, P., Corcoran, J. P. T., and Ghosh, S. (1993). Expression and regulation of keratins in the wound epithelium and mesenchyme of the regenerating newt limb. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 383A, 261-269.
73. Foty, R. A., and Liversage, R. A. (1993). Detection of insulin receptors in newt liver and forelimb regenerates and the effects of local insulin deprivation on epimorphic regeneratio n. J. Exp. Zool. 266, 299-311.
74. Gardiner, D. M., Muneoka, K., and Bryant, S. V. (1986). The migration of dermal cells during blastema formation in axolotls. Dev. Biol. 118, 488-493.
75. Gardiner, D. M., Blumberg, B., and Bryant, S. V. (1993). Expression of homeobox genes in limb regeneration. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 383A, 31-40.
76. Gardiner, D. M., Blumberg, B., Komine, Y., and Bryant, S. V. (1995). Regulation of HoxA expression in developing and regenerating axolotl limbs. Development 121, 1731-1741.
77. Géraudie, J., and Ferretti, P. (1997). Correlation between RA-induced apoptosis and patterning defects in regenerating fins and limbs. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 41, 529-532.
78. Géraudie, J., and Singer, M. (1978). Nerve-dependent macromolecular synthesis in the epidermis and blastema of the adult newt limb regenerate. J. Exp. Zool. 203, 455-460.
79. Géraudie, J., and Singer, M. (1981). Scanning electron microscopy of the normal and denervated limb regenerate in the newt, Notophthalmiis, including observations on embryonic amphibian limb-bud mesenchyme and blastema of the fish-fin regenerate. Am. J. Anat. 162, 73-87.
80. Géraudie, J., Hourdry, J., Vriz, S., Singer, M., and Méchali, M. (1990). Enhanced c-myc gene expression during forelimb regeneration outgrowth in the young Xenopus laevis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 87,3797-3801.
81. Gibson-Brown, J. J., Agulnik, S. I., Chapman, D. L., Alexiou, M., Garvey, N., Silver, L. M., and Papaioannou, V. E. (1996). Evidence of a role for T-box genes in the evolution of limb morphogenesis and the specification of forelimb/hindlimb identity. Mech. Dev. 56, 93-101.
82. Giguere, V., Ong, E. S., Evans, R. M., and Tabin, C. J. (1989). Spatial and temporal expression of the retinoic acid receptor in the regenerating amphibian limb. Nature (London) 337, 566-569.
83. Globus, M., and Alles, P. (1990). A search for immunoreactive substance P and other neural peptides in the limb regenerate of the newt, Notophthalmus viridescens. J. Exp. Zool. 254, 165-176.
84. Globus, M., Vethamany-Globus, S., Kesik, A., and Milton, G. (1983). Roles of neural peptide substance P and calcium in the newt Notophthalmus viridescens. In "Limb Development and Regeneration" (J. F. Fallon and A. I. Caplan, Eds.), pp. 513-523. A. R. Liss, New York.
85. Goldhamer, D. J., and Tassava, R. A. (1987). An analysis of proliferative activity in innervated and denervated forelimb regenerates of the newt, Notophthalmiis viridescens. Development 100, 619-628.
86. Goldhamer, D. J., Tomlinson, B. L., and Tassava, R. A. (1989). A developmentally regulated wound epithelial antigen of the newt limb regenerate is also present in a variety of secretory/transport cell types. Dev. Biol. 135, 392-404.
87. Gordon, H., and Brockes, J. P. (1988). Appearance and regulation of an antigen associated with limb regeneration in Notophthalmus viridescens. J. Exp. Zool. 247, 232-243.
88. Gospodarowicz, D., and Mescher, A. L. (1980). Fibroblast growth factor and the control of vertebrate regeneration and repair. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sei. 339, 151-174.
89. Griffin, K. J. P., Fekete, D. M., and Carlson, B. M. (1987). A monoclonal antibody stains myogenic cells in regenerating newt muscle. Development 101, 267-277.
90. Grillo, H. L., Lapiere, C. M., Dresden, M. H., and Gross, J. (1968). Collagenolytic activity in regenerating forelimbs of the adult newt (Trituras viridescens). Dev. Biol. 17, 571-583.
91. Gulati, A. K., Zalewski, A. A., and Reddi, A. (1983). An immunofluorescent study of the distribution of fibronectin and laminin during limb regeneration in the adult newt. Dev. Biol. 46, 355-365.
92. Hay, E. D. (1959). Microscopic observations of muscle dedifferentiation in regenerating Amblystoma limbs. Dev. Biol. 1, 555-585.
93. Hay, E. D., and Fishman, D. A. (1961). Origin of the blastema in regenerating limbs of the newt Tritiirus viridescens. Dev. Biol. 3, 26-59.
94. Hill, D. S., Ragsdale, C. W., Jr., and Brockes, J. P. (1993). Isoform-specific immunological detection of newt retinoic acid receptor dl in normal and regenerating limbs. Development 117, 937-945.
95. Hill, R. E., Jones, P. F., Rees, A. R., Sime, C. M., Justice, M. J., Copeland, N. G., Jenkins, N. A., Graham, E., and Davidson, D. R. (1989). A new family of mouse homeobox containing genes: Molecular structure, chromosomal location and developmental expression of Hox-7.1. Genes Dev. 3, 26-37.
96. Hinds, P. W., and Weinberg, R. A. (1994). Tumor suppressor genes. Curr. Opin. Gene Dev. 4, 135-141.
97. Imokawa, Y., and Yoshizato, K. (1997). Expression of Sonic hedgehog gene in regenerating newt limb blastemas recapitulates that in developing limb buds. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 94, 9159-9164.
98. Izpisua-Belmonte, J. C., and Duboule, D. (1992). Homeobox and pattern formation in the vertebrate limb. Dev. Biol. 152, 26-36.
99. Izpisua-Belmonte, J. C., Brown, J. M., Duboule, D., and Tickle, C. (1992). Expression of hox-4 genes in the chick wing links pattern-formation to the epithelial mesenchymal interac-tions that mediate growth. EMBO J. 11, 1451-1457.
100. Iten, L. E., and Bryant, S. V. (1973). Forelimb regeneration from different levels of amputation in the newt, Notophthalmus viridescens: Length, rate and stages. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 173, 263-282.
101. Jabaily, J., and Singer, M. (1977). Neurotrophic stimulation of DNA synthesis in the regenerating forelimb of the newt, Tritiirus. J. Exp. Zool. 199, 251-256.
102. Keeble, S., and Maden, M. (1986). Retinoic acid-binding protein in the axolotl: Distribution in mature tissue and time of appearance during limb regeneration. Dev. Biol. 117,435-441.
103. Kiffmeyer, W. R., Tomusk, E. V., and Mescher, A. L. (1991). Axonal transport and release of transferrin in nerves of regenerating amphibian limbs. Dev. Biol. 147, 392-402.
104. Kim, W. S., and Stocum, D. L. (1986). Retinoic acid modifies positional memory in the anteroposterior axis of regenerating axolotl limbs. Dev. Biol. 114, 170-179.
105. Kintner, C., and Brockes, J. P. (1984). Monoclonal antibodies identify blastemal cells derived from dedifferentiating muscle in newt limb regeneration. Nature (London) 308, 67-69.
106. Kintner, C., and Brockes, J. P. (1985). Monoclonal antibodies to the cells of a regenerating limb. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 89, 37-51.
107. Klatt, K. P., Yang, E. V., and Tassava, R. A. (1992). Monoclonal antibody MT2 identifies an extracellular matrix glycoprotein that is colocalized with tenascin during adult newt limb regeneration. Differentiation 50, 133-140.
108. Koshiba, K., Tamura, K., and Ide, H. (1994). Expression of regeneration-associated antigens in normal and retinoid-treated regenerating limbs of Ambystoma mexicanum. Dev. Growth Differ. 36, 357-364.
109. Kostakopoulou, K., Vogel, A., Brickell, P., and Tickle, C. (1996). "Regeneration" of wing bud stumps of chick embryos and reactivation of Msx-1 and Shh expression in response to FGF-4 and ridge signals. Mech. Dev. 55, 119-131.
110. Laufer, E., Nelson, C. E., Johnson, R. L., Morgan, B. A., and Tabin, C. (1994). Sonic hedgehog andfgf-4 act through a signaling cascade and feedback loop to integrate growth and pattern-ing of the developing limb bud. Cell 79, 993-1003.
111. Lebowitz, P., and Singer, M. (1970). Neurotrophic control of protein synthesis in the regenerat-ing limb of the newt, Triturus. Nature (London) 225, 824-827.
112. Leid, M., Kastner, P., and Chambon, P. (1992). Multiplicity generates diversity in the retinoic acid signalling pathways. Trends Biochem. Sei. 17, 427-433.
113. Lemaître, J. M., Méchali, M., and Géraudie, J. (1992). Nerve-dependent expression of c-myc protein during forelimb regeneration of Xenoptis laevis froglets. hit. J. Dev. Biol. 36,483-489.
114. Le Mouellic, H., Lallemand, Y., and Brulet, P. (1992). Homeosis in the mouse induced by a null mutation in the Hox 3.1 gene. Cell 69, 251-264.
115. Liversage, R. A. (1991). Origin of the blastema cells in epimorphic regeneration of urodele appendages: A history of ideas. In "A History of Regeneration Research" (C. E. Dinsmore, Ed.), pp. 179-199. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
116. Lo, D. C., Allen, F., and Brockes, J. P. (1993). Reversal of muscle differentiation during urodele limb regeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 90, 7230-7234.
117. Lohnes, D., Mark, M., Mendelsohn, C., Dollé, P., Dierich, A., Gorry, P., Gansmuller, A., and Chambon, P. (1994). Function of the retinoic acid receptors (RARs) during development. (I). Craniofacial and skeletal abnormalities in RAR double mutants. Development 120, 2723-2748.
118. Ludolph, D. C., Cameron, J. A., and Stocum, D. L. (1990). The effect of retinoicacid on positional memory in the dorsoventral axis of regenerating axolotl limbs. Dev. Biol. 140,41-52.
119. Ludolph, D. C., Cameron, J. A., Neff, A. W., and Stocum, D. L. (1993). Cloning and tissue-specific expression of the axolotl cellular retinoic acid-binding protein. Dev. Growth Differ. 35, 341-347.
120. Ludolph, D. C., Neff, A. W., Parker, M. A., Mescher, A. L., Smith, R. C. and Malacinski, G. M. (1995). Cloning and expression of the axolotl proto-oncogene ski. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1260, 102-104.
121. Lyons, G. E., and Buckingham, M. (1992). Developmental regulation of myogenesis in the mouse. Sem. Dev. Biol. 3, 243-253.
122. Maden, M. (1977). The role of Schwann cells in paradoxical regeneration in the axolotl. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 41, 1-13.
123. Maden, M. (1982). Vitamin A and pattern formation in the regenerating limb. Nature (London) 295, 672-675.
124. Maden, M. (1983). The effect of vitamin A on the regenerating axolotl limb. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 77, 273-295.
125. Maden, M. (1991). Retinoid-binding proteins in the embryo. Sem. Dev. Biol. 2, 161-170.
126. Maden, M., Keeble, S., and Cox, R. A. (1985). The characteristics of local application of retinoic acid to the regenerating axolotl limb. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 194, 228-235.
127. Maden, M., Ong, D. E., Summerbell, D., and Chytil, F. (1988). Spatial distribution of cellular protein-binding to retinoic acid in the chick limb bud. Nature (London) 335, 733-735.
128. Maier, C. E., and Miller, R. H. (1992). In vitro and in vivo characterization of blastemal cells from regenerating newt limbs. J. Exp. Zool. 262, 180-192.
129. Maier, C. E., Watanabe, M., Singer, M., McQuarrie, I. G., Sunshine, J., and Rutishauser, U. (1986). Expression and function of neural cell adhesion molecule during limb regeneration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 86, 8395-8399.
130. Mailman, M. L., and Dresden, M. H. (1976). Collagen metabolism in the regenerating forelimb of Notophthalmus viridescens: Synthesis, accumulation and maturation. Dev. Biol. 50,378-394.
131. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Borgmeyer, U., Heyman, R. A., Yang Zhou, J., Ong, E. S., Oro, A. E., Kakizuka, A., and Evans, R. M. (1992). Characterization of three RXR genes that mediate the action of 9-cis retinoic acid. Genes Dev. 6, 329-344.
132. Mangelsdorf, D. J., Kliewer, S. A., Kakizuka, A., Umesono, K., and Evans, R. M. (1993). Retinoid receptors. Recent Prog. Hormone Res. 48, 99-121.
133. Marshall, H., Studer, M., Popperl, H., Aparicio, S., Kuroiwa, A., Brenner, S., and Krumlauf, R. (1994). A conserved retinoic acid response element required for early expression of the homeobox gene Hoxb-1. Nature (London) 370, 567-571.
134. McCormick, A. M., Shubeita, H. E., and Stocum, D. L. (1988). Cellular retinoic acid binding protein: Detection and quantitation in regenerating axolotl limbs. J. Exp. Zool. 245,270-276.
135. Means, A. L., and Gudas, L. J. (1995). The role of retinoids in vertebrate development. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 64, 201-233.
136. Mendelsohn, C., Ruberte, E., and Chambon, P. (1992). Retinoid receptors in vertebrate limb development. Dev. Biol. 152, 50-61.
137. Mescher, A. L. (1993). Development and regeneration of limbs in the Short toes axolotl mutant. In "Limb Development and Regeneration, Part A" (J. F. Fallen, P. F. Goetinck, R. O. Kelley, and D. L. Stocum, Eds.), pp. 181-191. Wiley, New York.
138. Mescher, A. L., and Cox, C. A. (1988). Hyaluronate accumulation and nerve-dependent growth during regeneration of larval Ambystoma limbs. Differentiation 38, 161-168.
139. Mescher, A. L., and Gospodarowicz, D. (1979). Mitogenic effect of a growth factor derived from myelin on denervated regenerates of newt forelimbs. J. Exp. Zool. 207, 497-503.
140. Mescher, A. L., and Kiffmeyer, W. R. (1992). Axonal release of transferrin in peripheral nerves of axolotl during regeneration. Monogr. Dev. Biol. 23, 100-109.
141. Mescher, A. L., and Loh, J.-J. (1981). Newt forelimb regeneration blastemas in vitro: Cellular response to explantation and effects of various growth factors. J. Exp. Zool. 216,235-245.
142. Mescher, A. L., and Munaim, S. I. (1984). "Trophic" effect of transferrin on amphibian limb regeneration blastemas. J. Exp. Zool. 230, 485-490.
143. Mescher, A. L., and Munaim, S. I. (1986). Changes in the extracellular matrix and glycosaminoglycan synthesis during the initiation of regeneration in adult newt forelimbs. Anal. Rec. 214,424-431.
144. Migliorini Bruschelli, G., and Rosi, G. (1971). Polymelia induced by vitamin A in embryos of Bufo vulgaris. Rev. Biol. 64, 277-283.
145. Miller, S. D., Farmer, G., and Prives, C. (1995). p53 inhibits DNA replication in vitro in a DNA binding dependent manner. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15, 6554-6560.
146. Miyazaki, K., Uchiyama, K., Imokawa, Y., and Yoshizato, K. (1996). Cloning and characteriza-tion of cDNAs for matrix metalloproteinase of regenerating newt limbs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Set. USA 93, 6819-6824.
147. Monkemeyer, J., Ludolph, D. C., Cameron, J. A., and Stocum, D. L. (1992). Retinoic acid-induced change in anteroposterior positional identity in regenerating axolotl limbs is dose-dependent. Dev. Dyn. 193, 286-294.
148. Morasso, M. I., Mahon, K. A., and Sargent, T. D. (1995). A Xenopus distal-less gene in transgenic mice. Conserved regulation in distal limb epidermis and other sites of epithelialmesenchymal interaction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 92, 3968-3972.
149. Morgan, B. A., Izpisúa-Belmonte, J. C., Duboule, D., and Tabin, C. J. (1992). Targeted misexpression ofhox-4.6 in the avian limb bud causes apparent homeotic transformations. Nature (London) 358, 236-239.
150. Mullen, L. M., Bryant, S. V., Torok, M. A., Blumberg, B., and Gardiner, D. M. (1996). Nerve dependency of regeneration: The role of Distal-less and FGF signaling in amphibian limb regeneration. Development 122, 3487-3497.
151. Munaim, S. I., and Mescher, A. L. (1986). Transferrin and the trophic effect of neural tissue on amphibian limb regeneration blastemas. Dev. Biol. 116, 138-142.
152. Muneoka, K., Fox, W., and Bryant, S. V. (1986). Cellular contribution from dermis and cartilage to the regenerating limb blastema in axolotl. Dev. Biol. 116, 256-260.
153. Nace, J. D., and Tassava, R. A. (1995). Examination of fibronectin distribution and its sources in the regenerating newt limb by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization. Dev. Dyn. 202, 153-164.
154. Namenwirth, M. (1974). The inheritance of cell differentiation during limb regeneration in the axolotl. Dev. Biol. 41, 42-56.
155. Niazi, I. A., and Saxena, S. (1978). Abnormal hindlimb regeneration in tadpole of the toad, Bufo andersonii, exposed to excess vitamin A. Folia Biol. (Krakow) 26, 3-11.
156. Nicolas, S., Massacrier, A., Caubit, X., Cau, P., and Le Parco, Y. (1996). A distal-less-like gene is induced in the regenerating central nervous system of the urodele Pleurodeles waltl. Mech. Dev. 56, 209-220.
157. Niswander, L., Tickle, C., Vogel, A., Booth, I., and Martin, G. L. (1993). FGF-4 replaces the apical ectodermal ridge and directs outgrowth and patterning of the limb. Cell 75,579-587.
158. Niswander, L., Jeffrey, S., Martin, G. R., and Tickle, C. (1994). A positive feedback loop coordinates growth and patterning in the vertebrate limb. Nature (London) 371, 609-612.
159. Noji, S., Nohno, T., Koyama, E., Muto, K., Ohyama, K., Aoki, Y., Tamura, K., Ohsugi, K., Ide, H., and Taniguchi, S. (1991). Retinoic acid induces polarizing activity but is unlikely to be a morphogen in the chick limb bud. Nature (London) 350, 83-86.
160. Ogura, T., and Evans, R. M. (1995). Evidence for two distinct retinoic acid response pathways for HOXB1 gene regulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 92, 392-396.
161. Onda, H., and Tassava, R. A. (1991). Expression of the 9G1 antigen in the apical cap of axolotl regenerates requires nerves and mesenchyme. J. Exp. Zool. 257, 336-349.
162. Onda, H., Goldhamer, D. J., and Tassava, R. A. (1990). An extracellular matrix molecule of newt and axolotl regenerating limb blastemas and embryonic limb buds: Immunological relationship of MT1 antigen with tenascin. Development 108, 657-668.
163. Onda, H., Poulin, M. L., Tassava, R. A., and Chiu, I. M. (1991). Characterization of a newt tenascin cDNA and localization of tenascin mRNA during newt limb regeneration by in situ hybridization. Dev. Biol. 148, 219-232.
164. Peadon, A. M., and Singer, M. (1966). The blood vessels of the regenerating limbs of the adult newt, Triturus. J. Morphol. 118, 79-90.
165. Pecorino, L. T., and Lo, D. C. (1992). Having a blast with gene transfer. Curr. Biol. 2,31-32.
166. Pecorino, L. T., Lo, C. D., and Brockes, J. P. (1994). Isoform-specific induction of a retinoid-responsive antigen after biolistic transfection of chimaeric retinoic acid/thyroid hormone receptors into a regenerating limb. Development 120, 325-333.
167. Pecorino, L. T., Entwistle, A., and Brockes, J. P. (1996). Activation of a single retinoic acid receptor isoform mediates proximodistal respecification. Curr. Biol. 6, 563-569.
168. Peterson, R. L., Papenbrock, T., Davda, M. M., and Awgulewitsch, A. (1994). The murine Hoxc cluster contains five neighboring abdB-related Hox genes that show unique spatiall y coordinated expression in posterior embryonic subregions. Mech. Dev. 47, 253-260.
169. Popiela, H. (1976). Muscle satellite cells in urodele amphibians: Facilitated identification of satellite cells using ruthenium red staining. J. Exp. Zool. 198, 57-64.
170. Poulin, M. L., and Chiu, I. M. (1995). Re-programming of expression of the KGFR and bek variants of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 during limb regeneration in newts (Notophtlialmus viridesceiis). Dev. Dyn. 202, 378-387.
171. Poulin, M. L., Patrie, K. M., Botelho, M. J., Tassava, R. A., and Chiu, I. M. (1993). Heterogeneity in the expression of fibroblast growth factor receptors during limb regeneration in newts (Notophthalmus viridcscens). Development 119, 353-361.
172. Powell, A. J., Gates, P. B., Wylie, D., Velloso, C. P., Brockes, J. P., and Jat, P. S. (1997). Immortalization of rodent embryo fibroblasts by a 3′ untranslated region from the newt limb blastema. Submitted for publication.
173. Ragsdale, C. W., Jr., Petkovich, M., Gates, P. B., Chambon, P., and Brockes, J. P. (1989). Identification of a novel retinoic acid receptor in regenerative tissues of the newt. Nature (London) 341, 654-657.
174. Ragsdale, C. W., Jr., Gates, P. B., and Brockes, J. P. (1992a). Identification and expression pattern of a second isoform of the newt alpha retinoic acid receptor. Nucleic Acids Res. 20,5851.
175. Ragsdale, C. W., Jr., Gates, P. B., Hill, D. S., and Brockes, J. P. (1992b). Delta retinoic acid receptor isoform S is distinguished by its exceptional N-terminal sequence and abundance in the limb regeneration blastema. Mech. Dev. 40, 99-112.
176. Reginelli, A. D., Wang, Y. Q., Sassoon, D., and Muneoka, K. (1995). Digit tip regeneration correlates with regions of Msx1 (Hox-7) expression in fetal and newborn mice. Development 121, 1065-1076.
177. Repesh, L. A., and Oberpriller, J. C. (1980). Ultrastructural studies on migrating epidermal cells during the wound healing stage of regeneration in the adult newt, Notophthalmus viridescens. Am. J. Anat. 159, 187-208.
178. Repesh, L. A., Fitzgerald, T. J., and Furtch, L. T. (1982). Changes in the distribution of fibronectin during limb regeneration in newts using immunocytochemistry. Differentiation 22, 229-240.
179. Riddiford, L. M. (1960). Autoradiographic studies of tritiated thymidine
180. Robert, B., Sassoon, D., Jacq, B., Gehring, W., and Buckingham, M. (1989). Hox-7, a mouse homeobox gene with a novel pattern of expression duringembryogenesis.EA/BO. J. 8,91-100.
181. Robert, B., Lyons, G., Simandl, B. K., Kuroiwa, A., and Buckingham, M. (1991). The apical ectodermal ridge regulates Hox-7 and Hox-8 gene expression in developing chick limb buds. Genes Dev. 5, 2363-2374.
182. Saadi, A., Gallien, C. L., Guyot-Lenfant, M., and Chanoine, C. (1993). A new approach of urodele amphibian limb regeneration: Study of myosin isoforms and their control by thyroid hormone. Mech. Dev. 43, 49-56.
183. Salo, E., and Baguna, J. (1986). Stimulation of cellular proliferation and differentiation in the intact and regenerating planarian Dugesia (G) tigrina by the neuropeptide substance P. J. Exp. Zool. 237, 129-135.
184. Salpeter, M., and Singer, M. (1960). The fine structure of mesenchymatous cells in the regener-ating forelimb of the adult newt Triturus. Dev. Biol. 2, 516-534.
185. Saunders, J. W., Jr. (1948). The proximo-distal sequence of origin of the parts of chick wing and the role of the ectoderm. J. Exp. Zool. 108, 363-403.
186. Savard, P., and Tremblay, M. (1995). Differential regulation of [fox C6 in the appendages of adult urodeles and anurans. J. Mol. Biol. 249, 879-889.
187. Savard, P., Gates, P. B., and Brockes, J. P. (1988). Position dependent expression of a homeobox gene transcript in relation to amphibian limb regeneration. EMBO J. 7, 4275-4282.
188. Scadding, S. R. (1989). Histological effects vitamin A on limb regeneration in the larval axolotl, Ambysloma mexicaimm. Can. J. Zool. 68, 159-167.
189. Scadding, S. R., and Maden, M. (1986). Comparison of the effects of vitamin A on limb development and regeneration in the axolotl, Ambystoma mexicanum. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 91, 19-34.
190. Scadding, S. R., and Maden, M. (1994). Retinoic acid gradients during limb regeneration. Dev. Biol. 162, 608-617.
191. Schilthuis, J. G., Gann, A. A., and Brockes, J. P. (1993). Chimeric retinoic acid/thyroid hormone receptors implicate RAR-alpha 1 as mediating growth inhibition by retinoic acid. EMBO J. 12, 3459-3466.
192. Schmidt, A. J. (1968). "Cellular Biology of Vertebrate Regeneration and Repair," pp. 420. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
193. Scott, W. J., Jr., Walter, R., Tzimas, G., Sass, J. O., Nau, H., and Collins, M. D. (1994). Endogenous status of retinoids and their cytosolic binding proteins in limb buds of chick vs mouse embryos. Dev. Biol. 165, 397-409.
194. Sicard, R. E. (1985). "Regulation of Vertebrate Limb Regeneration," pp. 185. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
195. Simeone, A., Acampora, D., Pannese, M., D'Esposito, M., Stornaiuolo, A., Gulisano, M., Mallamaci, A., Kastury, K., Druck, T., and Huebner, K. (1994). Cloning and characteriza tion of two members of the vertebrate Dix gene family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sei. USA 91,2250-2254.
196. Simon, H. G., Kittappa, R., Khan, P. A., Tsilfidis, C., Liversage, R. A., and Oppenheimer, S. (1997). A novel family of T-box genes in urodele amphibian limb development and regeneration: Candidate genes involved in vertebrate forelimb/hindlimb patterning. Devel-opment 124, 1355-1366.
197. Simon, H. G., and Tabin, C. J. (1993). Analysis of Hox-4.5 and Hox-3.6 expression during newt limb regeneration: Differential regulation of paralogous Hox genes suggest different roles for members of different Hox clusters. Development 111, 1397-1407.
198. Simon, H.-G., Nelson, C., Goff, D., Laufer, E., Morgan, B., and Tabin, C. J. (1995). Differential expression of myogenic regulator genes and msx-1 during dedifferentiation of regenerating amphibian limbs. Dev. Dyn. 202, 1-12.
199. Singer, M. (1952). The influence of the nerve in regeneration of the amphibian extremity. Q. Rev. Biol. 27, 169-200.
200. Singer, M. (1974). Neurotrophic control of limb regeneration in the newt. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sei. 228, 308-322.
201. Singer, M., and Caston, J. D. (1972). Neurotrophic dependence of macromolecular synthesis in the early limb regenerate of the newt, Triturus. J. Embryol. Exp. Morphol. 28, 1-11.
202. Singer, M., and Craven, L. (1948). The growth and morphogenesis of the regenerating forelimb of adult Triturus following denervation at various stages of development. J. Exp. Zool. 108, 279-308.
203. Singer, M., and Géraudie, J. (1991). The neurotrophic phenomenon: Its history during limb regeneration in the newt. In "A History of Regeneration Research. Milestones in the Evolution of a Science" (C. E. Dinsmore, Ed.), pp. 101-112. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
204. Singer, M., and Salpeter M. M. (1961). Regeneration in vertebrates: The role of the wound epithelium. In "Growth of the Living Systems" (M. X. Zarrow, Ed.), pp. 277-311. Basic Books, New York.
205. Singer, M., Maier, C. E., and McNutt, W. S. (1976). Neurotrophic activities of brain extracts in forelimb regeneration of the urodele, Triturus. J. Exp. Zool. 196,131-150.
206. Small, K. M., and Potter, S. S. (1993). Homeotic transformations and limb defects in Hox All mutant mice. Genes Dev. 7, 2318-2328.
207. Smith, G. N., Toole, B. P., and Gross, J. (1975). Hyaluronidase activity and glycosaminoglycan synthesis in the amputated newt limb: Comparison of denervated, nonregenerating limbs with regenerates. Dev. Biol. 43, 221-232.
208. Smith, M. J., and Globus, M. (1989). Multiple interactions in juxtaposed monolayers of amphibian neuronal epidermal and mesodermal limb blastema cells. In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. 25, 849-856.
209. Smith, M. J., Globus, M., and Vethamany-Globus, S. (1995). Nerve extracts and substance P activate the phosphatidylinositol signaling pathway and mitogenesis in newt forelimb regenerates. Dev. Biol. 167, 239-251.
210. Song, K., Wang, Y., and Sassoon, D. (1992). Expression of Hox-7.1 in myoblasts inhibits terminal differentiation and induces cell transformation. Nature 360, 477-481.
211. Sordino, P., Vanderhoeven, F., and Duboule, D. (1995). Hox gene expression in teleost fins and the origin of vertebrate digits. Nature (London) 375, 678-681.
212. Spallanzani, L. (1768). Prodromo di un opera da imprimersi sopra la riproduzioni animal. Giovanni Montanari, Modena. "An essay on Animal Reproduction" (Translated in 1769 by M. Maty). T. Becket and DeHondt, London.
213. Stocum, D. L. (1985). The role of the skin in urodele limb regeneration. In "Regulation of Vertebrate Limb Regeneration" (R. E. Sicard, Ed.), pp. 32-53. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
214. Stocum, D. L. (1991). Retinoic acid and limb regeneration. Sem. Dev. Biol. 2, 199-210.
215. Stocum, D. L. (1995). "Wound Repair, Regeneration and Artificial Tissues." R. G. Landes, Austin, TX.
216. Stocum, D. L., and Maden, M. (1990). Regenerating limbs. Methods Enzymol. 190 (Part B), 189-200.
217. Stratford, T., Horton, C., and Maden, M. (1996). Retinoic acid is required for the initiation of outgrowth in the chick limb bud. Curr. Biol. 6, 1124-1133.
218. Tabin, C. J. (1989). Isolation of potential vertebrate limb-identity genes. Development 105, 813-820.
219. Tanaka, E. M., Gann, A. A. F., Gates, P. B., and Brockes, J. P. (1997). Newt myotubes re-enter the cell cycle by phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein. J. Cell Biol. 136,155-165.
220. Tassava, R. A. (1969). Hormonal and nutritional requirements for limb regeneration and survival of adult newts. J. Exp. Zool. 170, 33-54.
221. Tassava, R. A. (1983). Limb regeneration to digit stages occurs in well-fed adult newts after hypophysectomy. J. Exp. Zool. 225, 433-441.
222. Tassava, R. A. (1992). Retinoic acid enhances monoclonal antibody WE3 reactivity in the regenerate epithelium of the adult newt. J. Morphol. 213, 159-169.
223. Tassava, R. A., and Acton, R. D. (1989). Distribution of a wound epithelium antigen in embryonic tissues of newts and salamanders. Ohio J. Sei. 89, 12-15.
224. Tassava, R. A., and Mescher, A. L. (1975). The role of injury, nerves, and wound epidermis during the initiation of amphibian limb regeneration. Differentiation 4, 23-24.
225. Tassava, R. A., and Olsen, C. L. (1985). Neurotrophic influences on cellular proliferation in urodele limb regeneration: In vivo experiments. In "Regulation of Vertebrate Limb Regeneration" (R. E. Sicard, Ed.), pp. 81-91. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
226. Tassava, R. A., Johnson-Wint, B., and Gross, J. (1986). Regenerate epithelium and skin glands of the adult newt react to the same monoclonal antibody. J. Exp. Zool. 239,229-240.
227. Tassava, R. A., Castilla, M., Arsanto, J. P., and Thouveny, Y. (1993). The wound epithelium of the regenerating limbs of Pleurodeles Waltl and Notophthalmus viridescens: Studies with mAbs WE3 and WE4, phalloidin, and DNase 1. J. Exp. Zool. 267, 180-187.
228. Taylor, G. P., Anderson, R., Reginelli, A. D., and Muneoka, K. (1994). FGF-2 induces regeneration of the chick limb bud. Dev. Biol. 163,282-284.
229. Tchang, F., Gusse, M., Soussi, T., and Méchali, M. (1993). Stabilization and expression of high levels of p53 during early development in Xenopits laevis. Dev. Biol. 159, 163-172.
230. Thaller, C., and Eichele, G. (1990). Isolation of 3,4-didehydroretinoic acid, a novel morphogenetic signal in the chick wing bud. Nature (London) 345, 815-819.
231. Thaller, C., Hofmann, C., and Eichele, G. (1993). 9-cis-retinoic acid, a potent inducer of digit pattern duplications in the chick wing bud. Development 118, 957-965.
232. Thorns, S. D., and Stocum, D. L. (1984). Retinoic acid-induced pattern duplication in regenerat-ing urodele limbs. Dev. Biol. 103, 319-328.
233. Thornton, C. S. (1968). Amphibian limb regeneration. In "Advances in Morphogenesis" (M. Abercrombie, J. Brachet, and T. J. King, Eds.), Vol. 7, pp. 205-249. Academic Press, New York.
234. Thornton, C. S. (1970). Amphibian limb regeneration and its relation to nerves. Am. Zool. 10, 113-118.
235. Tickle, C. (1991). Retinoic acid and chick limb development. Development (Suppl. 1), 113-121.
236. Tickle, C., and Eichele, G. (1994). Vertebrate limb development. Annu. Rev. Cell. Biol. 10,121-152.
237. Tickle, C., Alberts, B. M., Wolpert, L., and Lee, J. (1982). Local application of retinoic acid to the limb bud mimics the action of the polarizing region. Nature (London) 296,564-565.
238. Timpl, R. (1989). Structure and activity of basement membrane proteins. Eur. J. Biochem. 180, 487-502.
239. Todd, T. J. (1823). On the process of reproduction of the members of the aquatic salamander. Q. J. Sei. 16, 84-96.
240. Tomasek, J. J., Mazurkiewicz, J. E., and Newman, S. A. (1982). Non-uniform distribution of fibronectin during avian limb development. Dev. Biol. 90,118-126.
241. Toole, B. P. (1973). Hyaluronate and hyaluronidase in morphogenesis and differentiation. Am. Zool. 13, 1061-1065.
242. Toole, B. P., and Gross, J. (1971). The extracellular matrix of the regenerating newt limb: Synthesis and removal of hyaluronate prior to differentiation. Dev. Biol. 25, 57-77.
243. Toole, B. P., Goldberg, R. L., Chi-Rosso, G., Underhill, C. B., and Orkin, R. W. (1984). Hyaluronate cell-interactions. In "The Role of Extracellular Matrix in Development" (R. L. Trelstad, Ed.), A. R. Liss, New York.
244. Tschumi, P. A. (1957). The growth of the hind limb bud of Xenopus laevis and its dependence upon the epidermis. J. Anat. 91, 149-173.
245. Tsonis, P. A. (1991). Amphibian limb regeneration. In vivo 5, 541-550.
246. Tsonis, P. A. (1996). "Amphibian Limb Regeneration." Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK.
247. Tsonis, P. A., Washabaugh, C. H., and del Rio-Tsonis, K. (1994). Morphogenetic effects of 9-m-retinoic acid on the regenerating limbs of the axolotl. Roux' Arch. Dev. Biol. 203, 230-234.
248. Vethamany-Globus, S. (1987). Hormone action in newt limb regeneration: Insulin and endorphins. Biochem. Cell Biol. 65, 730-738.
249. Viviano, C. M., Horton, C. E., Maden, M., and Brockes, J. P. (1995). Synthesis and release of 9-cis retinoic acid by the urodele wound epidermis. Development 121, 3753-3762.
250. Vogel, A., Roberts-Clarke, D., and Niswander, L. (1995). Effect of FGF on gene expression in chick limb bud cells in vivo and in vitro. Dev. Biol. 171, 507-520.
251. Wallace, H. (1981). "Vertebrate Limb Regeneration." Wiley, Chichester, UK.
252. Wanek, N., Gardiner, D. M., Muneoka, K., and Bryant, S. V. (1991). Conversion by retinoic acid of anterior cells into ZPA cells in the chick wing bud. Nature (London) 380, 81-83.
253. Wei, L. N., and Chen, G. J. (1991). Production and analyses of transgenic mice with ectopic expression of cellular retinoic acid-binding protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 179, 210-216.
254. Wei, Y., Yang, E. V., Klatt, K. P., and Tassava, R. A. (1995). Monoclonal antibody MT2 identifies the urodele orl chain of Type XII collagen, a developmentally regulated extracellular matrix protein in regenerating newt limbs. Dev. Biol. 168, 503-513.
255. West, D. C., Hampson, I. N., Arnold, F., and Kumar, S. (1985). Angiogenesis induced by degradation products of hyaluronic acid. Science 288, 1324-1326.
256. Yang, E. V., Shima, D. T., and Tassava, R. A. (1992). Monoclonal antibody ST1 identifies an antigen that is abundant in the axolotl and newt limb stump but is absent from the undifferentiated regenerate. J. Exp. Zool. 264, 337-350.
257. Yang, E. V., and Bryant, S. V. (1994). Developmental regulation of a matrix metalloproteinase during regeneration of axolotl appendages. Dev. Biol. 166, 696-703.
258. Yokouchi, Y., Nakazato, S., Yamamoto, M., Goto, Y., Kameda, T., Iba, H., and Kuroiwa, A. (1995). Misexpression of Hoxa-13 induces cartilage homeotic transformation and changes cell adhesiveness in chick limb buds. Genes Dev. 9, 2509-2522.
259. Zenjari, C., Boilly-Marer, Y., Desbiens, X., Oudghir, M., Hondermarck, H., and Boilly, B. (1996). Experimental evidence for FGF-1 control of blastema cell proliferation during limb regeneration of the amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 40, 965-971.