Optimal treatment of phantom limb pain in the elderly

Drugs and Aging

Volumn 12, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 361-376

  Baron, Ralf ^a   Wasner, Gunnar ^a   Lindner, Volker ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; CALCITONIN; CAPSAICIN; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; OPIATE;

AMPUTATION; AMPUTATION STUMP; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; HUMAN; NERVE CELL; NOCICEPTIVE RECEPTOR; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT REFERRAL; PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; PHANTOM PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REGIONAL ANESTHESIA; REVIEW; SPINAL GANGLION; SYMPATHETIC BLOCKING; TRANSCUTANEOUS NERVE STIMULATION;

AMPUTATION STUMPS; ANIMALS; HUMANS; PAIN, POSTOPERATIVE; PHANTOM LIMB;

EID: 0031921579     PISSN: 1170229X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00002512-199812050-00003     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, et al. Non-painful phantom limb phenomena in amputees: incidence, clinical characteristics and temporal course. Acta Neurol Scand 1984; 70 (6): 407-14
2. Keil G. So-called initial description of phantom pain by Ambroise Paré. 'Chose digne d'admiration et quasi incredible': the 'douleur es parties mortes et amputees'. Fortschr Med 1990; 108 (4): 62-6
3. Hill A, Niven CA, Knussen C. Pain memories in phantom limbs: a case study. Pain 1996; 66 (2-3): 381-4
4. Carlen PL, Wall PD, Nadvorna H, et al. Phantom limbs and related phenomena in recent traumatic amputations. Neurology 1978; 28 (3): 211-7
5. Shukla GD, Sahu SC, Tripathi RP, et al. Phantom limb: a phenomenological study. Br J Psychiatry 1982; 141: 54-8
6. Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, et al. Phantom limb, phantom pain and stump pain in amputees during the first 6 months following limb amputation. Pain 1983; 17 (3): 243-56
7. Postone N. Phantom limb pain: a review. Int J Psychiatry Med 1987; 17 (1): 57-70
8. Katz J, Melzack R. Pain 'memories' in phantom limbs: review and clinical observations. Pain 1990; 43 (3): 319-36
9. Sherman RA. Stump and phantom limb pain. Neurol Clin 1989; 7 (2): 249-64
10. Worz R, Worz E. Pain syndromes following amputation: analysis of 100 affected patients with chronic stump and phantom pain. Fortschr Med 1990; 108 (4): 53-6
11. Zuurmond WW, van der Zande AH, de Lange JJ. Phantom pain following leg amputation: retrospective study of incidence, therapy and the effect of preoperative analgesia. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 1996; 140 (20): 1080-3
12. Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Parker L. Chronic phantom and stump pain among American veterans: results of a survey. Pain 1984; 18 (1): 83-95
13. Esquenazi A. Geriatric amputee rehabilitation. Clin Geriatr Med 1993; 9 (4): 731-43
14. Weiss SA, Lindell B. Phantom limb pain and etiology of amputation in unilateral lower extremity amputees. J Pain Symptom Manage 1996; 11 (1): 3-17
15. Bennett GJ. An animal model of neuropathic pain: a review. Muscle Nerve 1993; 16 (10): 1040-8
16. Chabal C, Jacobson L, Russell LC, et al. Pain responses to perineuromal injection of normal saline, gallamine, and lidocaine in humans. Pain 1989; 36 (3): 321-5
17. Kajander KC, Wakisaka S, Bennett GJ. Spontaneous discharge originates in the dorsal root ganglion at the onset of a painful peripheral neuropathy in the rat. Neurosci Lett 1992; 138 (2): 225-8
18. McLachlan EM, Jang W, Devor M, et al. Peripheral nerve injury triggers noradrenergic sprouting within dorsal root ganglia. Nature 1993; 363 (6429): 543-6
19. Janig W, Levine JD, Michaelis M. Interactions of sympathetic and primary afferent neurons following nerve injury and tissue trauma. Prog Brain Res 1996; 113: 161-84
20. Nystrom B, Hagbarth KE. Microelectrode recordings from transected nerves in amputees with phantom limb pain. Neurosci Lett 1981; 27 (2): 211-6
21. Nikolajsen L, Ilkjaer S, Kroner K, et al. The influence of preamputation pain on postamputation stump and phantom pain. Pain 1997; 72: 393-405
22. Katz J, Vaccarino AL, Coderre TJ, et al. Injury prior to neurectomy alters the pattern of autotomy in rats: behavioral evidence of central neural plasticity. Anesthesiology 1991; 75 (5): 876-83
23. Ovechkin AM, Kukushkin ML, Gnezdilov AV, et al. Adequacy of amputation analgesia as a factor preventing the triggering of pain memory in the genesis of phantom pain syndrome [in Russian]. Anesteziol Reanimatol 1995 Mar/Apr (2): 56-9
24. Woolf CJ. Evidence for a central component of post-injury pain hypersensitivity. Nature 1983; 306 (5944): 686-8
25. Simone DA, Sorkin LS, Oh U, et al. Neurogenic hyperalgesia: central neural correlates in responses of spinothalamic tract neurons. J Neurophysiol 1991; 66 (1): 228-46
26. Woolf CJ, Thompson SW. The induction and maintenance of central sensitization is dependent on N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor activation: implications for the treatment of post-injury pain hypersensitivity states. Pain 1991; 44 (3): 293-9
27. Seltzer Z, Cohn S, Ginzburg R, et al. Modulation of neuropathic pain behavior in rats by spinal disinhibition and NMDA receptor blockade of injury discharge. Pain 1991; 45 (1): 69-75
28. Shir Y, Seltzer Z. A-fibers mediate mechanical hyperesthesia and allodynia and C-fibers mediate thermal hyperalgesia in a new model of causalgiform pain disorders in rats. Neurosci Lett 1990; 115 (1): 62-7
29. Bennett GJ. Neuropathic pain. In: Wall PD, Melzack R, editors. Textbook of pain. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1994: 201-24
30. Nikolajsen L, Hansen CL, Nielsen J, et al. The effect of ketamine on phantom pain: a central neuropathic disorder maintained by peripheral input. Pain 1996; 67 (1): 64-77
31. Jensen TS, Rasmussen P. Phantom pain and other phenomena after amputation. In: Wall PD, Melzack R, editors. Textbook of pain. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1994: 651-65
32. Parkes CM. Factors determining the persistence of phantom pain in the amputee. J Psychosom Res 1973; 17: 97-108
33. Baron R, Maier C. Phantom limb pain: are cutaneous nociceptors and spinothalamic neurons involved in the signalling and maintenance of spontaneous and touch-evoked pain? A case report. Pain 1995; 60 (2): 223-8
34. Castro-Lopes JM, Coimbra A, Grant G, et al. Ultrastructural changes of the central scalloped (C1) primary afferent endings of synaptic glomeruli in the substantia gelatinosa Rolandi of the rat after peripheral neurotomy. J Neurocytol 1990; 19 (3): 329-37
35. Woolf CJ, Shortland P, Coggeshall RE. Peripheral nerve injury triggers central sprouting of myelinated afferents. Nature 1992; 355 (6355): 75-8
36. Baron R, Saguer M. Postherpetic neuralgia: are C-nociceptors involved in signalling and maintenance of tactile allodynia? Brain 1993; 116 (6): 1477-96
37. Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, et al. Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature 1995; 375 (6531): 482-4
38. Larbig W, Montoya P, Flor H, et al. Evidence for a change in neural processing in phantom limb pain patients. Pain 1996; 67: 275-83
39. Sherman RA. Phantom limb pain: mechanism-based management. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 1994; 11: 85-106
40. Sherman RA, Griffin VD, Evans CB, et al. Temporal relationships between changes in phantom limb pain intensity and changes in surface electromyogram of the residual limb. Int J Psychophysiol 1992; 13: 71-7
41. Baron R, Haendler G, Schulte H. Afferent large fiber polyneuropathy predicts the development of postherpetic neuralgia. Pain 1997; 73: 231-8
42. Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, et al. Immediate and long-term phantom limb pain in amputees: incidence, clinical characteristics and relationship to pre-amputation limb pain. Pain 1985; 21 (3): 267-78
43. Miles J. Prevention of phantom pain after major lower limb amputation by epidural infusion of diamorphine, clonidine and bupivacaine [commentary]. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1995; 77 (1): 71
44. Schug SA, Burrell R, Payne J, et al. Pre-emptive epidural analgesia may prevent phantom limb pain [letter]. Reg Anaesth 1995; 20 (3): 256
45. Katz J. Prevention of phantom limb pain by regional anaesthesia. Lancet 1997; 349 (9051): 519-20
46. Bach S, Noreng MF, Tjellden NU. Phantom limb pain in amputees during the first 12 months following limb amputation, after preoperative lumbar epidural blockade. Pain 1988; 33 (3): 297-301
47. Jahangiri M, Jayatunga AP, Bradley JW, et al. Prevention of phantom pain after major lower limb amputation by epidural infusion of diamorphine, clonidine and bupivacaine. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1994; 76 (5): 324-6
48. Pinzur MS, Garla PG, Pluth T, et al. Continuous postoperative infusion of a regional anesthetic after an amputation of the lower extremity: a randomized clinical trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1996; 78 (10): 1501-5
49. Wartan SW, Hamann W, Wedley JR, et al. Phantom limb pain and sensation among British veteran amputees. Br J Anaesth 1997; 78: 652-9
50. Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Gall NG. A survey of current phantom limb pain treatment in the United States. Pain 1980; 8 (1): 85-99
51. Sherman RA, Sherman CJ. A comparison of phantom sensations among amputees whose amputations were of civilian and military origins. Pain 1985; 21 (1): 91-7
52. Jacox A, Carr DB, Payne R. New clinical-practice guidelines for the management of pain in patients with cancer. N Engl J Med 1994; 330 (9): 651-5
53. Gotzsche P. Meta-analysis of NSAIDs: contribution of drugs, doses, trial designs, and meta-analytic techniques. Scand J Rheumatol 1993; 22: 255-60
54. Harwood DD, Hanumanthu S, Stoudemire A. Pathophysiology and management of phantom limb pain. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1992; 14 (2): 107-18
55. Watson CP, Evans RJ, Reed K, et al. Amitriptyline versus placebo in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1982; 32 (6): 671-3
56. Watson CP, Chipman M, Reed K, et al. Amitriptyline versus maprotiline in postherpetic neuralgia: a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Pain 1992; 48 (1): 29-36
57. Watson PN, Evans RJ. Postherpetic neuralgia: a review. Arch Neurol 1986; 43 (8): 836-40
58. Watson CP. Postherpetic neuralgia. Neurol Clin 1989; 7 (2): 231-48
59. Max MB, Culnane M, Schafer SC, et al. Amitriplyline relieves diabetic neuropathy pain in patients with normal or depressed mood. Neurology 1987; 37 (4): 589-96
60. Max MB, Schafer SC, Culnane M, et al. Amitriptyline, but not lorazepam, relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1988; 38 (9): 1427-32
61. Kishore-Kumar R, Max MB, Schafer SC, et al. Desipramine relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990; 47 (3): 305-12
62. Max MB, Kishore-Kumar R, Schafer SC, et al. Efficacy of desipramine in painful diabetic neuropathy: a placebo-controlled trial. Pain 1991; 45 (1): 3-9
63. Max MB. Treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia: antidepressants. Ann Neurol 1994; 35 Suppl.: S50-3
64. Watson CP, Evans RJ. A comparative trial of amitriptyline and zimelidine in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain 1985; 23 (4): 387-94
65. Max MB, Lynch SA, Muir J, et al. Effects of desipramine, amitriptyline, and fluoxetine on pain in diabetic neuropathy. N Engl J Med 1992; 326 (19): 1250-6
66. Iacono RP, Sandyk R, Bamford CR, et al. Post-amputation phantom pain and autonomous stump movements responsive to doxepin. Funct Neurol 1987; 2 (3): 343-8
67. Devor M, Wall PD, Catalan N. Systemic lidocaine silences ectopic neuroma and DRG discharge without blocking nerve conduction. Pain 1992; 48 (2): 261-8
68. Koltzenburg M, Kees S, Budweiser S, et al. The properties of unmyelinated afferents change in a chronic constriction neuropathy. In: Gebhart GF, Hammond DL, Jensen TS, editors. Proceedings of the VIIth World Congress on Pain: Paris: 1993 Aug 22-27. Seattle (WA): IASP Press, 1994: 511-22
69. Woolf CJ, Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z. The systemic administration of local anaesthetics produces a selective depression of C-afferent fibre evoked activity in the spinal cord. Pain 1985; 23 (4): 361-74
70. Devulder JR, Ghys L, Dhondt W, et al. Neuropathic pain in a cancer patient responding to subcutaneously administered lignocaine. Clin J Pain 1993; 9 (3): 220-3
71. Brose WG, Cousins MJ. Subcutaneous lidocaine for treatment of neuropathic cancer pain. Pain 1991; 45 (2): 145-8
72. Rowbotham MC, Reisner-Keller LA, Fields HL. Both intravenous lidocaine and morphine reduce the pain of post-herpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1991; 41 (7): 1024-8
73. Kastrup J, Petersen P, Dejgard A, et al. Intravenous lidocaine infusion - a new treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy? Pain 1987; 28 (1): 69-75
74. Kastrup J, Bach FW, Petersen P, et al. Lidocaine treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy and endogenous opioid peptides in plasma. Clin J Pain 1989; 5 (3): 239-44
75. Dejgard A, Petersen P, Kastrup J. Mexiletine for treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy. Lancet 1988; 1: 9-11
76. Davis RW. Successful treatment for phantom pain. Orthopedics 1993; 16 (6): 691-5
77. Stow PJ, Glynn CJ, Minor B. EMLA cream in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia: efficacy and pharmacokinetic profile. Pain 1989; 39 (3): 301-5
78. Rowbotham MC, Fields HL. Topical lidocaine reduces pain in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain 1989; 38 (3): 297-301
79. Rowbotham MC, Davies PS, Fields HL. Topical lidocaine gel relieves postherpetic neuralgia. Ann Neurol 1995; 37 (2): 246-53
80. McQuay H, Carroll D, Jadad AR, et al. Anticonvulsant drugs for management of pain: a systematic review. BMJ 1995; 311 (7012): 1047-52
81. Elliott F, Little A, Milbrandt W. Carbamazepine for phantom-limb phenomena [letter]. N Engl J Med 1976; 295 (12): 678
82. Patterson JF. Carbamazepine in the treatment of phantom limb pain. South Med J 1988; 81 (9): 1100-2
83. Rosenberg JM, Harrell C, Ristic H, et al. The effect of gabapentin on neuropathic pain. Clin J Pain 1997; 13 (3): 251-5
84. Amer S, Meyerson BA. Lack of analgesic effect of opioids on neuropathic and idiopathic forms of pain. Pain 1988; 33 (1): 11-23
85. Arner S, Meyerson BA. Genuine resistance to opioids - fact or fiction? Pain 1991; 47 (1): 116-21
86. Pappagallo M, Campbell JN. Chronic opioid therapy as alternative treatment for post-herpetic neuralgia. Ann Neurol 1994; 35 Suppl.: S54-6
87. Portenoy RK, Duma C, Foley KM. Acute herpetic and post-herpetic neuralgia: clinical review and current management. Ann Neurol 1986; 20 (6): 651-64
88. Portenoy RK, Foley KM, Inturrisi CE. The nature of opioid responsiveness and its implications for neuropathic pain: new hypotheses derived from studies of opioid infusions. Pain 1990; 43 (3): 273-86
89. Urban BJ, France RD, Steinberger EK, et al. Long-term use of narcotic/antidepressant medication in the management of phantom limb pain. Pain 1986; 24 (2): 191-6
90. Jacobson L, Chabal C. Prolonged relief of acute postamputation phantom limb pain with intrathecal fentanyl and epidural morphine. Anesthesiology 1989; 71 (6): 984-5
91. Jacobson L, Chabal C, Brody MC. Relief of persistent post-amputation stump and phantom limb pain with intrathecal fentanyl. Pain 1989; 37 (3): 317-22
92. Omote K, Ohmori H, Kawamata M, et al. Intrathecal buprenorphine in the treatment of phantom limb pain. Anesth Analg 1995; 80 (5): 1030-2
93. Grafova VN, Danilova EI, Reshetniak VK. The action of sodium valproate in central pain syndromes [in Russian]. Eksp Klin Farmakol 1994; 57 (2): 8-11
94. Swerdlow M. Anticonvulsant drugs and chronic pain. Clin Neuropharmacol 1984; 7 (1): 51-82
95. Bartusch SL, Sanders BJ, D'Alessio JG, et al. Clonazepam for the treatment of lancinating phantom limb pain. Clin J Pain 1996; 12 (1): 59-62
96. Roth A, Kolaric K. Analgesic activity of calcitonin in patients with painful osteolytic metastases of breast cancer: results of a controlled randomized study. Oncology 1986; 43 (5): 283-7
97. Jaeger H, Maier C, Wawersik J. Postoperative treatment of phantom pain and causalgias with calcitonin. Anaesthesist 1988; 37 (2): 71-6
98. Spigset O, Mjorndal T, Vinge E, et al. Calcitonin as medication in pain? Nord Med 1993; 108 (2): 54-7
99. Watson CP, Evans RJ, Watt VR. Post-herpetic neuralgia and topical capsaicin. Pain 1988; 33 (3): 333-40
100. Watson CP, Tyler KL, Bickers DR, et al. A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. Clin Ther 1993; 15 (3): 510-26
101. Westerman RA, Roberts RG, Kotzmann RR, et al. Effects of topical capsaicin on normal skin and affected dermatomes in herpes zoster. Clin Exp Neurol 1988; 25: 71-84
102. Peikert A, Heinrich M, Ochs G. Topical 0.025% capsaicin in chronic post-herpetic neuralgia: efficacy, predictors of response and long-term course. J Neurol 1991; 238 (8): 452-6
103. Weintraub M, Golik A, Rubio A. Capsaicin for treatment of post-traumatic amputation stump pain. Lancet 1990; 336 (8721): 1003-4
104. Rayner HC, Atkins RC, Westerman RA. Relief of local stump pain by capsaicin cream. Lancet 1989; II (8674): 1276-7
105. Mathisen LC, Skjelbred P, Skoglund LA, et al. Effect of ketamine, an NMDA receptor inhibitor, in acute and chronic orofacial pain. Pain 1995; 61 (2): 215-20
106. Eide K, Stubhaug A, Oye I, et al. Continuous subcutaneous administration of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain 1995; 61 (2): 221-8
107. Max MB, Byas-Smith MG, Gracely RH, et al. Intravenous infusion of the NMDA antagonist, ketamine, in chronic posttraumatic pain with allodynia: a double-blind comparison to alfentanil and placebo. Clin Neuropharmacol 1995; 18 (4): 360-8
108. Felsby S, Nielsen J, Arendt-Nielsen L, et al. NMDA receptor blockade in chronic neuropathic pain: a comparison of ketamine and magnesium chloride. Pain 1996; 64 (2): 283-91
109. Stannard CF, Porter GE. Ketamine hydrochloride in the treatment of phantom limb pain. Pain 1993; 54 (2): 227-30
110. Knox DJ, McLeod BJ, Goucke CR. Acute phantom limb pain controlled by ketamine. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995; 23 (5): 620-2
111. Katz J. Psychophysical correlates of phantom limb experience. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55 (9): 811-21
112. Marsland AR, Weekes JW, Atkinson RL, et al. Phantom limb pain: a case for beta blockers? Pain 1982; 12 (3): 295-7
113. Abram SE, Lightfoot RW. Treatment of long-standing causalgia with prazosin. Reg Anesth 1981; 6: 79-81
114. Scadding JW, Wall PD, Parry CB, et al. Clinical trial of propranolol in post-traumatic neuralgia. Pain 1982; 14 (3): 283-92
115. Rauck RL, Eisenach JC, Jackson K, et al. Epidural clonidine treatment for refractory reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Anesthesiology 1993; 79 (6): 1163-9
116. Gentili ME, Bonnet F. Temporary relief from pain in the phantom limb after spinal anesthesia using a combination of bupivacaine and clonidine. Ann Fr Anesth Reanim 1993; 12 (3): 323-5
117. Byas-Smith MG, Max MB, Muir J, et al. Transdermal clonidine compared to placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy using a two-stage 'enriched enrollment' design. Pain 1995; 60 (3): 267-74
118. Davis KD, Treede RD, Raja SN, et al. Topical application of clonidine relieves hyperalgesia in patients with sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 1991; 47 (3): 309-17
119. Katz J, France C, Melzack R. An association between phantom limb sensations and stump skin conductance during transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) applied to the contralateral leg: a case study. Pain 1989; 36 (3): 367-77
120. Katz J, Melzack R. Auricular transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) reduces phantom limb pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1991; 6 (2): 73-83
121. Finsen V, Persen L, Lovlien M, et al. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation after major amputation. J Bone Joint Surg 1988; 70 (1): 109-12
122. Lundeberg T. Relief of pain from a phantom limb by peripheral stimulation. J Neurol 1985; 232 (2): 79-82
123. Thorsteinsson G. Chronic pain: use of TENS in the elderly. Geriatrics 1987; 42 (12): 75-7, 81-2
124. Krainick JU, Thoden U, Riechert T. Pain reduction in amputees by long-term spinal cord stimulation: long-term follow-up study over 5 years. J Neurosurg 1980; 52 (3): 346-50
125. Broggi G, Servello D, Franzini A, et al. Epidural stimulation for peripheral vascular disease: 10 years experience. Ital J Neurol Sci 1993; 14 (4): 317-20
126. Levy RM, Lamb S, Adams JE. Treatment of chronic pain by deep brain stimulation: long term follow-up and review of the literature. Neurosurgery 1987; 21 (6): 885-93
127. Kumar K, Toth C, Nath RK. Deep brain stimulation for intractable pain: a 15-year experience. Neurosurgery 1997; 40 (4): 736-46, 746-7 [discussion]
128. Saris SC, Iacono RP, Nashold Jr BS. Successful treatment of phantom pain with dorsal root entry zone coagulation. Appl Neurophysiol 1988; 51 (2-5): 188-97
129. Wood MR, Hunter GA, Millstoin SG. The value of revision surgery after initial amputation of an upper or lower limb. Prosthet Orthot Int 1987; 11 (1): 17-20
130. Sherman RA, Sherman CJ, Bruno GM. Psychological factors influencing chronic phantom limb pain: an analysis of the literature. Pain 1987; 28 (3): 285-95
131. Arena JG, Sherman RA, Bruno GM, et al. The relationship between situational stress and phantom limb pain: cross-lagged correlational data from six month pain logs. J Psychosom Res 1990; 34 (1): 71-7
132. Dougherty J. Relief of phantom limb pain after EMG biofeedback-assisted relaxation: a case report. Behav Res Ther 1980; 18 (4): 355-7
133. Sherman RA, Gall N, Gormly J. Treatment of phantom limb pain with muscular relaxation training to disrupt the pain-anxiety-tension cycle. Pain 1979; 6 (1): 47-55
134. Sherman RA, Arena JG, Sherman CJ, et al. The mystery of phantom pain: growing evidence for psychophysiological mechanisms. Biofeedback Self Regul 1989; 14: 267-80
135. Muraoka M, Komiyama H, Hosoi M, et al. Psychosomatic treatment of phantom limb pain with post-traumatic stress disorder: a case report. Pain 1996; 66 (2-3): 385-8
136. Siegel EE. Control of phantom limb pain by hypnosis. Am J Clin Hypn 1979; 21 (4): 285-6
137. Hill A, Niven CA, Knussen C. The role of coping in adjustment to phantom limh pain. Pain 1995; 62 (1): 79-86