Serum markers for the staging of disease activity of sarcoidosis and other interstitial lung diseases of unknown etiology

Sarcoidosis Vasculitis and Diffuse Lung Disease

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 22-37

  Müller Quernheim, Joachim ^a  

^a RESEARCH CENTER BORSTEL   (Germany)

Author keywords

Alveolitis; Collagen vascular diseases; Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis; Immunopathogenesis; Sarcoidosis; Serum markers

Indexed keywords

CELL ADHESION MOLECULE; CYTOKINE; CYTOKINE RECEPTOR; ENZYME; MARKER;

DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE MARKER; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; INFLAMMATION; INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE; LUNG ALVEOLITIS; LUNG FIBROSIS; LUNG SARCOIDOSIS; METABOLITE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; HUMANS; LUNG DISEASES, INTERSTITIAL; MACROPHAGES, ALVEOLAR; PULMONARY ALVEOLI; SARCOIDOSIS, PULMONARY; T-LYMPHOCYTES;

EID: 0031901065     PISSN: 11240490     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (215)

1. Finley T, Swenson E, Curran W, Haber G, Ladman A.: Bronchopulmonary lavage in normal subjects and patients with obstructive lung disease. Ann Intern Med 1967; 66: 651-658.
2. Ikeda S, Yanai N, Ishikawa S: Flexible bronchofiberscope. Keio J Med 1968; 17: 1-16.
3. Weinberger SE, Kelman JA, Elson NA et al: Bronchoalveolar lavage in interstitial lung disease. Ann Intern Med 1978; 89: 459-466.
4. Reynolds H, Newball H: Analysis of proteins and respiratory cells obtained from human lungs by bronchial lavage. J Lab Clin Med 1974; 84: 559-573.
5. Hunninghake GW, Crystal RG: Pulmonary sarcoidosis: A disorder mediated by excess helper T-lymphocyte activity at sites of disease activity. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 429-434.
6. Planès C, Valeyre D, Loiseau A, Bernaudin J, Soler P: Ultrastructural alterations of the air-blood barrier in sarcoidosis and hypersensitivity pneumonitis and their relation to lung histopathology. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 1067-1074.
7. Hawgood S: Surfactant: Composition, structure and metabolism. In: Crystal R, West J, ed. The lung: scientific foundations. Raven Press, New York: 1991: 247-261.
8. Williams MD, Wright JR, March KL et al: Human surfactant protein A enhances attachment of Pneumocystis carinii to rat alveolar macrophages. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996; 14: 232-238.
9. Hoffman RM, Claypool WD, Katyal SL, Singh G, Rogers RM, Dauber JH: Augmentation of rat alveolar macrophage migration by surfactant protein. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135: 1358-1362.
10. Tenner A, Robinson SL, Borchelt J, Wright JR: Human pulmonary surfactant protein (SP-A), a protein structurally homologous to Clq, can enhance FcR- and CRl-mediated phagocytosis. J Biol Chem 1989; 164(23): 13923-13928.
11. Tegtmeyer FK, Gortner L, Ludwig A, Brandt E: In vitro modulation of induced neutrophil activation by different surfactant preparations. Eur Respir J 1996; 9: 752-757.
12. Ghio AJ, Fracica SL, Young SL, Piantodosi CA: Synthetic surfactant scavenges oxidants and protects against hyperoxic lung injury. J Appl Physiol 1993; 77: 1217-1223.
13. Weissler J, Mendelson C, Moya F, Yarbrough W Jr: Effect of interstitial lung disease macrophages on T-cell signal transduction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 191-196.
14. Antal JM, Divis LT, Erzurum SC, Wiedemann HP, Thomassen MJ: Surfactant suppresses NFKB activation in human monocytic cells. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996; 14: 374-379.
15. McCormack FX, King TE Jr Voelker DR, Robinson PC, Mason RJ: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Abnormalities in the bronchoalveolar lavage content of surfactant protein A. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144: 160-166.
16. Ansfield MJ, Benson BJ: Identification of the immunosuppressive components of canine pulmonary surface active material. J Immunol 1980; 122: 125.
17. Pinkston P, Bitterman PB, Crystal RG: Spontaneous release of interleukin-2 by lung T-lymphocytes in active pulmonary sarcoidosis. N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 793-800.
18. Hunninghake GW, Bedell GN, Zavala DC, Monick M, Brady M: Role of interleukin-2 release by lung T-cells in active pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983; 128: 634-636.
19. Müller-Quernheim J, Saltini C, Sondermeyer P, Crystal RG: Compartmentalized activation of the interleukin-2 gene by lung T-lymphocytes in active pulmonary sarcoidosis. J Immunol 1986; 137: 3475-3483.
20. Müller-Quernheim J, Pfeifer S, Kienast K, Zissel G: Spontaneous interleukin-2 release of bronchoalveolar lavage cells in sarcoidosis is a co-determinator of prognosis. Lung 1996; 174: 243-253.
21. Zissel G, Homolka J, Schlaak J, Schlaak M, Müller-Quernheim J: Anti-inflammatory cytokine release by alveolar macrophages in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 713-719.
22. Yamamoto H, Hirayama M, Genyea C, Kaplan J: TGFβ mediates natural suppressor activity of IL-2-activaled lymphocytes. J Immunol 1994; 152: 3842-3847.
23. 1 during lymphocyte activation. J Immunol 1990; 145: 1415-1422.
24. Koberda J, Grimm E, Moser R: Effect of anti-CD3/anti-CD28/interleukin-2 stimulation of mononuclear cells on transforming growth factor β inhibition of lymphokine-activated killer cell generation. J Can Res Clin Oncol 1993; 119: 131-136.
25. Kehrl JH, Wakefield LM, Roberts AB et al: Production of transforming growth factor β by human T lymphocytes and its potential role in the regulation of T cell growth. J Exp Med 1986; 163: 1037-1050.
26. Wahl SM, Hunt DA, Wong HL et al: Transforming growth factor-β is a potent immunosuppressive agent that inhibits IL-1-dependent lymphocyte proliferation. J Immunol 1988; 140: 3026-3032.
27. Zissel G, Ernst M, Schlaak M, Müller-Quernheim J: Accessory function of alveolar macrophages from patients with sarcoidosis and other granulomatous and non-granulomatous lung diseases. J Invest Med 1997; 45: 75-86.
28. + T cells in the affected organs of sarcoidosis patients. Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 102: 399-405.
29. Nemoz G, Frigent AF, Aloui R et al: Impaired G-protein and cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase activity in T-lymphocytes from patients with sarcoidosis. Eur J Clin Invest 1993; 23: 18-27.
30. Agostini C, Zambello R, Sancetta R et al: Expression of tumor necrosis factor-receptor superfamily members by lung T lymphocytes in interstitial lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153: 1359-1367.
31. Kabelitz D, Pohl T, Pechhold K: Activation-induced cell death (apoptosis) of mature peripheral T lymphocytes. Immunol Today 1993; 14(7): 338-339.
32. Alderson MR, Tough TW, Davis-Smith T et al: Fas ligand mediates activation induced cell death in human T-lymphocytes. J Exp Med 1995; 181: 71-77.
33. Grell M, Zimmermann G, Hülser D, Pfizenmaier K, Scheurich P: TNF receptors TR60 and TR80 can mediate apoptosis via induction of distinct signal pathways. J Immunol 1994; 153: 1963-1972.
34. Hunninghake G, Glazier A, Monick M, Dinarello C: Interleukin-1 is a chemotactic factor for human T-lymphocytes. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 135: 66-71.
35. Standiford T, Rolfe M, Kunkel S et al: Macrophage inflammatory protein-1 α expression in interstitial lung disease. J Immunol 1993; 151: 2852-2863.
36. Ming JW, Bersani L, Mantovani A: Tumor necrosis factor is chemotactic for monocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J Immunol 1987; 138: 1469-1474.
37. Kreipe H, Radzun HJ, Heidorn K et al: Proliferation, macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor-receptor expression of alveolar macrophages in active sarcoidosis. Lab Invest. 1990; 62: 697-703.
38. Walker C, Bauer W, Braun R et al: Activated T cells and cytokines in bronchoalveolar lavages from patients with various lung diseases associated with eosinophilia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 150: 1038-1048.
39. Hunninghake GW: Release of interleukin-1 by alveolar macrophages of patients with active pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129: 569-572.
40. Strausz J, Männel D, Pfeifer S, Borkowski A, Ferlinz R, Müller-Quernheim J: Spontaneous monokine release by alveolar macrophages in chronic sarcoidosis. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1991; 96: 68-75.
41. Steffen M, Petersen J, Oldigs M et al: Increased secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1-beta, and interleukin-6 by alveolar macrophages from patients with sarcoidosis. Chest 1993; 91: 939-949.
42. Müller-Quernheim J, Pfeifer S, Männel D, Strausz J, Ferlinz R: Lung restricted activation of the alveolar macrophage monocyte system in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992;145:187-192.
43. Homolka J, Müller-Quernheim J: Increased interleukin 6 production by bronchoalveolar lavage cells in patients with active sarcoidosis. Lung 1993; 171: 173-183.
44. Baughman RP, Strohofer SA, Buchsbaum J, Lower EE: Release of tumor necrosis factor by alveolar macrophages of patients with sarcoidosis. J Lab Clin Med 1990; 115: 36-42.
45. Melis M, Gjormakaj M, Pace E, Malizia G, Spatafora M: Increased expression of Leukocyte function associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) by alveolar macrophages of patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest 1991; 910-916.
46. Shakoor Z, Hamblin AS: Increased CD11/CD18 expression on peripheral blood leucocytes of patients with sarcoidosis. Clin Exp Immunol 1992; 90: 99-105.
47. Striz I, Wang Y, Kalaycioglu O, Costabel U: Expression of alveolar macrophage adhesion molecules in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest 1992; 102: 882-886.
48. Dalhoff K, Bohnet S, Braun J, Kreft B, Wiessmann K: Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) in the pathogenesis of mononuclear cell alveolitis in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Thorax 1993; 48: 1140-1144.
49. Schaberg T, Rau M, Stephan H, Lode H: Increased number of alveolar macrophages expressing surface molecules of the CD11/CD18 family in sarcoidosis and idiopathic fibrosis is related to the production of superoxide anions by these cells. Am Rev Respr Dis 1993; 147: 1507-1513.
50. Seckinger P, Zhang JH, Hauptmann B, Dayer JM: Characterisation of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) inhibitor: Evidence of immunological cross-reactivity with the TNF receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990; 87: 5188-5192.
51. Hance AJ, Douches S, Winchester RJ, Ferrans VJ, Crystal RG: Characterization of mononuclear phagocyte subpopulations in the human lung by using monoclonal antibodies. Chances in alveolar macrophage phenotype associated with pulmonary sarcoidosis. J Immunol 1985; 134: 284-292.
52. Pforte A, Gerth C, Voss A et al: Proliferating alveolar macrophages in BAL and lung function changes in interstitial lung. Eur Respir J 1993; 6: 951-955.
53. Striz I, Wang J, Teschler H, Sorg C, Costabel U: Phenotypic markers of alveolar macrophage maturation in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Lung 1993; 171: 293-303.
54. Fels AOS, Nathan CF, Cohn ZA: Hydrogen peroxide release by alveolar macrophage from sarcoid patients and by alveolar macrophage from normals after exposure to recombinant interferon α, β, and γ and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J Clin Invest 1987; 80: 381-386.
55. Pforte A, Schiessler A, Gais P et al: Expression of CD14 correlates with lung function impairment in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest 1994; 105: 349-354.
56. Homolka J, Lorenz J, Zuchhold HD, Müller-Quernheim J: Evaluation of soluble CD14 and serum neopterin as serum parameters of inflammatory activity of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Clin Invest 1992; 70: 909-916.
57. Wahl SM, McCartney-Francis N, Mergenhagen S: Inflammatory and immunoregulatory roles of TGF-β. Immunol Today 1989; 10: 258-261.
58. Bull HG, Thornberry NA, Cordes EH: Purification of angiotensin-converting enzyme from rabbit lung and human plasma by affinity chromatography. J Biol Chem 1985; 260: 2963-2972.
59. Ehlers MRW, Maeder DL, Kirsch RE: Rapid affinity chromatographic purification of human lung and kidney angiotensin-converting enzyme with the novel N-carboxyalkyl dipeptide inhibitor N-(1-carboxy-5-aminopentyl) glycylglycine. Biochem Biophys Acta 1986; 883: 361.
60. Yamaguchi K, Martinet Y, Basset P, Fells GA, Crystal RG: High levels of transforming growth factor-β are present in the epithelial lining fluid of the normal human lower respiratory tract. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137: 1360-1363.
61. Kelley J: Transforming growth factor-β. In: Kelley J, ed. Cytokines, Marcel Dekker, New York: 1993: 101-127. (Lenfant C, ed. Lung biology in health and disease; vol 61).
62. Fels A, Cohn Z: The alveolar macrophage. J Appl Physiol 1986; 60: 353-369.
63. Hamacher J, Schaberg T: Adhesion molecules in lung diseases. Lung 1994; 172: 189-213.
64. Grotendorst GR, Smale G, Pencev D: Production of transforming growth factor-β. J Cell Physiol 1989; 140: 396-402.
65. Zissel G, Schlaak J, Schlaak M, Müller-Quernheim J: Regulation of cytokine release of alveolar macrophages by interleukin-4, interleukin-10, and transforming growth factor-β. Eur Cytokine Netw 1996; 7: 59-66.
66. Richeldi L, Sorrentino R, Saltini C: HLA-DPB 1 glutamate 69: a genetic marker of beryllium disease. Science 1993; 262: 242-244.
67. Holter J, Park H, Sjoerdsma K, Kataria Y: Nonviable autologous bronchoalveolar lavage cell preparations induce intradermal epithelioid cell granulomas in sarcoidosis patients. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 864-871.
68. Kunkel SL, Chensue SW, Strieter RM, Lynch JP, Remick DG: Cellular and molecular aspects of granulomatous inflammation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1989; 1: 439-447.
69. Prior C, Barbee RA, Evans PM et al: Lavage versus serum measurement of lysozyme, angiotensin converting enzyme and other inflammatory markers in sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 1990; 3: 1146-1154.
70. Specks U, Martin II WJ, Rohrbach MS: Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid angiotensin-converting enzyme in interstitial lung diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141: 117-123.
71. Gilbert S, Steinbrech DS, Landas SK, Hunninghake GW: Amounts of angiotensin-converting enzyme mRNA reflect the burden of granulomas in granulomatous lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis, 1993; 148: 483-486.
72. Muthuswamy PP, Lopez-Majano V, Ranginwala M, Trainor WD: Serum angiotensin-convening enzyme (SACE) activity as indicator of total body granuloma load and prognosis in sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1987; 4: 142-148.
73. Rennard SI, Hunninghake GW, Bitterman PB, Crystal RG: Production of fibronectin by the human alveolar macrophages: A mechanism for the recruitment of fibroblasts to sites of tissue injury in the interstitial lung diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 7147-7151.
74. Bitterman PB, Wewers MD, Rennard SI, Adelberg S, Crystal RG: Modulation of alveolar macrophage-driven fibroblast proliferation by alternative macrophase mediators. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 700-708.
75. Smith RE, Strieter RM, Zhang K, Phan SH, Standiford TJ: Lukacs NW. A role for C-C chemokines in fibrotic lung disease. J Leuk Biol 1995; 57(5): 782-787.
76. Rolfe MW, Kunkel SL, Standiford TJ et al: Pulmonary fibroblast expression of interleukin-8: A model for alveolar macrophage-derived cytokine networking. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991; 5: 493-501.
77. Moseley PL, Hemken C, Monick MM, Nugent KM, Hunninghake GW: Interferon and growth factor activity for human lung fibroblasts: Release from bronchoalveolar cells from patients with active sarcoidosis. Chest 1986; 89: 657-662.
78. Bjermer L, Eklund A, Blaschke E: Bronchoalveolar lavage fibronectin in patients with sarcoidosis: correlation to hyaluronan and disease activity. Eur Respir J 1991; 4: 965-971.
79. Mornex JF, Leroux C, Greenland T, Ecochard D: From granuloma to fibrosis in interstitial lung disease: Molecular and cellular interactions. Eur Respir J 1994; 7: 779-785.
80. Pohl WR, Conlan MG, Thompson AB et al: Vitronectin in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid is increased in patients with interstitial lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 1369-1375.
81. Pohl WR, Thompson AB, Köhn H et al: Serum procollagen III peptide levels in subjects with sarcoidosis. A 5-year follow-up study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 412-417.
82. O'Connor CM, Ward K, van Breda A, McIlgorm A, Fitzgerald MX: Type 3 procollagen peptide in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Poor indicator of course and prognosis in sarcoidosis. Chest 1989; 96: 339-344.
83. Perez RL, Duncan A, Hunter RL, Staton GL: Elevated D dimer in the lungs and blood of patients with sarcoidosis. Chest 1993; 103: 1100-1106.
84. Schaberg T, Orzechowski K, Oesterling C, Lode H, Schuppan D: Simultaneous measurement of collagen type-VI-related antigen and procollagen type-III-N-propeptide levels in bronchoalveolar lavage. Eur Respir J 1994; 7: 1221-1226.
85. Rubin LA, Kurman CC, Fritz ME et al: Soluble interleukin 2 receptors are released from activated human lymphoid cells. J Immunol 1985; 135: 3172-3177.
86. Reske-Kunz AB, Osawa H, Josimovic-Alasevic O, Rüde E, Diamantstein T: Soluble interleukin-2 receptors are released by long term-cultured insulin-specific T cells transiently after contact with antigen. J Immunol 1987; 138: 192-196.
87. Semenzato G, Cipriani A, Trentin L et al: High serum levels of soluble interleukin-2 receptors in sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1987; 4: 25-27.
88. Lawrence EC, Brousseau KP, Berger MB, Kurman CC, Marcon L, Nelson DL: Elevated concentration of soluble interleukin-2 receptors in serum samples and bronchoalveolar fluids in active sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988; 137: 759-764.
89. Müller-Quernheim J, Pfeifer S, Strausz J, Ferlinz R: Correlation of clinical and immunological parameters of the inflammatory activity of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144: 1322-1329.
90. Ina Y, Takada K, Sato T, Yamamoto M, Noda M, Morishita M: Soluble interleukin 2 receptor in patients with sarcoidosis. Possible origin. Chest 1992; 102: 1128-1133.
91. Pforte A, Brunner A, Gais P et al: Concomitant modulation of serum-soluble interleukin-2 receptor and alveolar macrophage interleukin-2 receptor in sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147: 717-722.
92. Keicho N, Kitamura K, Takaku F, Yotsumoto H: Serum concentration of soluble interleukin-2 receptor as a sensitive parameter of disease activity in sarcoidosis. Chest 1990; 98: 1125-1129.
93. Strausz J, Müller-Quernheim J, Ferlinz R: Serumspiegel des sezernierten Interleukin-2 Rezeptor als ein Aktivitätsparameter der Sarkoidose. Disch Med Wschr 1989; 114: 744-749.
94. Schmitt M, Wirtz H: Sarkoidose der Lunge: Klinischer Verlauf und entzündliche Aktivität. Pneumologie 1995; 49: 226-232.
95. Ziegenhagen MW, Benner UK, Zissel G, Zabel P, Schlaak M, Müller-Quernheim J: Sarcoidosis: TNF-alpha release from alveolar macrophages and serum level of sIL-2R are prognostic markers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156(5): 1586-1592.
96. Hol BEA, Hintzen RQ, van Lier RAW, Alberts C, Out TA, Jansen HM: Soluble and cellular markers of T cell activation in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 643-649.
97. Ito M, Kojiro N, Shirasaka T, Moriwaki Y, Tachibana I, Kokubo T: Elevated levels of soluble interleukin-2 receptors in tuberculous pleural effusions. Chest 1990; 97(5): 1141-1143.
98. Baganha MF, Pego A, Lima MA, Gaspar EV, Cordeiro AR: Serum and pleural adenosine deaminase. Correlation with lymphocytic populations. Chest 1990; 97(3): 605-610.
99. Fukami R, Ohba S, Ishida K, Nakamura S, Konno M, Ohno S: Serum adenosine deaminase and angiotensin convening enzyme activity in patients with endogenous uveitis. Acta Soc Ophthalmol Japan 1994; 98(3): 287-292.
100. Taylor A: Serum adenosine deaminase acitivity is increased in sarcoidosis. Clin Chem 1984; 30: 499-500.
101. Lorenz J, Wetzel E, Müller-Quernheim J, Ferlinz R: Adenosin deaminase: A novel serum marker of disease activity in sarcoidois. Am Rev Respir Dis 1994; 149: A609.
102. Taylor A: Value of measuring adenosine deaminase in serum of sarcoidosis patients (letter). Clin Chem 1986: 32(12).
103. Maña J, Orts J, Fuentes J, Badrinas F: Serum adenosine deaminase assay in sarcoidosis has little clinical usefulness (letter). Clin Chem 1986; 32(7): 1429-1430.
104. Selroos OB: Value of biochemical markers in serum for determination of disease activity in sarcoidosis. Sarcoidosis 1984; 1: 45-49.
105. Arbustini E, Grasso M, Leo G et al: Polymorphism of angiotensin-converting enyme gene in sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153: 851-854.
106. Furuya K, Yamaguchi E, Itoh A et al: Deletion polymorphism in the angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) gene as a genetic risk factor for sarcoidosis. Thorax 1996; 51(8): 777-780.
107. Bazil V, Baudys M, Hilgert I, Stefanova I L MG, Zbrozek J, Horejsi V: Structural relationship between the soluble and membrane-bound forms of human monocyte surface glycoprotein CD14. Mol Immunol 1989; 26: 657-662.
108. Goyert S, Ferrero E, Rettig W, Yenamandra A, Obata F, Le Beau M: The CD14 monocyte differentiation antigen maps to a region encoding growth factors and receptors. Science 1988; 239: 497-500.
109. Lauener R, Goyert S, Geha R, Vercelli D: Interleukin 4 down-regulates the expression of CD14 in normal human monocytes. Eur J Immunol 1990; 20: 2375-2381.
110. Tollerud D, Clark J, Brown L et al: The influence of age, race, and gender on peripheral blood mononuclear-cell subsets in healthy nonsmokers. J Clin Immunol 1989; 9: 214-222.
111. Pryjma J, Zembala M, Pituch-Noworolska A, Ernst M, van del Bosch J, Flad H: Monocyte-T-cell interactions in pokeweed mitogen-activated cultures. Immunology 1990; 71: 397-403.
112. Robinson BWS, McLemore T, Crystal RG: γ interferon is spontaneously released by alveolar macrophages and lung T-lymphocytes in patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. J Clin Invest 1985; 75: 1488-1495.
113. Prior C, Haslam P: Increased levels of serum interferon-γ in pulmonary sarcoidosis and relationship with response to corticosteroid therapy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 53-60.
114. Striz I, Zheng L, Wang J, Pokorná H, Bauer P, Costabel U: Soluble CD14 is increased in bronchoalveolar lavage of active sarcoidosis and correlates with alveolar macrophage membrane-bound CD14. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151: 544-547.
115. Huber C, Batchelor JR, Fuchs D et al: Immune response-associated production of neopterin: release from macrophages primarily under control of interferon-gamma. J Exp Med 1984; 160: 310-316.
116. Eklund A, Blaschke E: Elevated-serum neopterin in sarcoidosis. Lung 1986; 164: 325-332.
117. Prior C, Frank A, Fuchs D et al: Urinary neopterin excretion in pulmonary sarcoidosis: correlation to clinical course of disease. Clin Chim Acta 1988; 177: 211-220.
118. Meliconi R, Lalli E, Borzi R et al: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: can cell mediated immunity markers predict clinical outcome. Thorax 1990; 45: 536-540.
119. Kallenberg C, Schilizzi B, Beaumont F, de Leij L, Poppema S: The T. Expression of class II major histocompatibility complex antigens on alveolar epithelium in interstitial lung disease: relevance to pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Pathol 1987; 40: 725-733.
120. Limper A, Colby V, Sanders M, Asakura S, Roche P, DeRemee R: Immunohistochemical localization of transforming growth factor-β1 in the non-necrotizing granulomas of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 197-204.
121. Christensen P, Armstrong L, Fak J, Chen G, McDonald R, Toews G: Regulation of rat pulmonary dendritic cell immunostimulatory activity by alveolar epithelial cell-derived granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1995; 13.
122. Peters U, Papadopoulos T, Müller-Hermelink H: MHC class II antigens on lung epithelia of human fetuses and neonates. Ontogeny and expression in lungs with histologic evidence of infection. Lab Invest 1990; 63: 38-43.
123. Paine RI, Mody CH, Chawis A, Spahr MA, Turka LA, Toews GB: Alveolar epithelial cells block lymphocyte proliferation in vitro without inhibiting activation. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1991; 5: 221-229.
124. Borron P, Veldhuizen RA, Lewis JF et al: Surfactant associated protein-A inhibits human lymphocyte proliferation and IL-2 production. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1996; 15(1): 115-121.
125. Standiford T, Kunkel S, Basha M et al: Interleukin-8 gene expression by a pulmonary epithelial cell line. A model for cytokine networking in the lung. J Clin Invest 1990; 86: 1945-1953.
126. Standiford T, Kunkel S, Phan S, Rollins B, Strieter R: Alveolar macrophage-derived cytokines induce monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression from human pulmonary type II- like epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 1991; 266: 9912-9918.
127. Kuroki Y, Tsutahara S, Shijubo N et al: Elevated levels of lung surfactant protein A in sera from patients with idiopalhic pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary alveolar proteinosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147: 723-729.
128. Lesur O, Mancini M, Janot C et al: Loss of lymphocyte modulatory control by surfactant lipid extracts from acute hypersensitivity pneumonitis: comparison with sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J 1994; 7: 1944-1949.
129. Hamm H, Lührs J, Guzman y Rotaeche J, Costabel U, Fabel H, Bartsch W: Elevated surfactant protein A in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids from sarcoidosis and hypersensitivity pneumonitis patients. Chest 1994; 106: 1766-1770.
130. Kohno N, Awaya Y, Oyama T et al: KL-6, a mucin-like glycoprotein, in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from patients with interstitial lung disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 637-642.
131. Kobayashi J, Kitamura S: Serum KL-6 for the evaluation of active pneumonitis in pulmonary sarcoidosis. Chest 1996; 109: 1277-1282.
132. van Dinther-Janssen AC, van Maarsseveen TC, Eckert H, Newman W, Meijer CJ: Identical expression of ELAM-1, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1 in sarcoidosis and usual interstitial pneumonitis. J Pathol 1993; 170: 157-164.
133. Rothlein R, Mainolfi E, Czajkowski M, Marlin S: A form of circulating ICAM-1 in human serum. J Immunol 1991; 147: 3788-3793.
134. Ishii Y, Kitamura S: Elevated levels of soluble ICAM-1 in serum and BAL fluid in patients with active sarcoidosis. Chest 1995; 107: 1636-1640.
135. Bäumer I, Zissel G, Schlaak M, Müller-Quernheim J: Shed sICAM-1 molecules in BAL cell supernatants and serum of patients with pulmonary sarcoidosis. Lung 1997; 105-116.
136. Shijubo N, Imai K, Shigehara K, et al: Soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in sera and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary sarcoidosis. Clin Exp Immunol 1994; 95: 156-161.
137. Hamblin AS, Shakoor Z, Kapahi P, Haskard D: Circulating adhesion molecules in sarcoidosis. Clin Exp Immunol 1994; 96: 335-338.
138. Matusiewicz SP, Williamson IJ, Sime PJ et al: Plasma lactate dehydrogenase: a marker of disease activity in cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis and extrinsic allergic alveolitis? Eur Respir J 1993; 6: 1282-1286.
139. Bacchella L, Tinelii C, Gilé L-S et al: Serum type I and type III procollagen peptide levels in sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 1996; 9: 1618-1651.
140. Eklund A, Sigurdardottir O, Öhrn M: Vitronectin and its relationship to other extracellular matrix components in bronchoalveolar matrix components in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in sarcoidosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 646-650.
141. Meier-Sydow J, Weiss S, Buhl R, Rust M, Raghu G: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: current clinical concepts and challenges in management. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 15: 77-96.
142. du Bois RM: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Ann Rev Med 1993; 44: 441-450.
143. Weissler J: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: cellular and molecular pathogenesis. Am J Med Sci 1989; 279: 91-104.
144. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Keogh BA: Interstitial lung disease of unknown cause: disorders characterized by chronic inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. N Engl J Med 1984; 310: 154-156, 235-244.
145. Cantin A, Crystal RG: Interstitial pathology: An overview of the chronic interstitial lung disorders. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1985; 76: 83-91.
146. Cherniack RM, Crystal RG, Kalica AR: NHLBI Workshop summary. Current concepts in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a road map for the future. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 680-683.
147. Barbera JA, Hayashi S, Hegele RG, Hogg JC: Detection of Epstein-Barr virus in lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia by in situ hybridization. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 940-946.
148. Irving WL, Day S, Johnston ID: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and hepatitis C virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 1683-1684.
149. Strausz J, Müller-Quernheim J, Steppling H, Ferlinz R: Oxyen radical production by alveolar inflammatory cells in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141: 124-128.
150. Cantin AM, North SL, Fells GA, Hubbard RC, Crystal RG: Oxidant-mediated epithelial cell injury in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Invest 1987; 79: 1665-1673.
151. Behr J, Maier K, Krombach F, Adelmann-Grill BC: Pathogenetic significance of reactive oxygen species in diffuse fibrosing alveolitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 144: 146-150.
152. Lynch III JP, Standiford TJ, Rolfe MW, Kunkel SL, Strieter RM: Neutrophilic alveolitis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. The role of interleukin-8. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 1433-1439
153. Elias J, Freundlich B, Kern J, Rosenbloom J: Cytokine networks in the regulation of inflammation and fibrosis in the lung. Chest 1990; 97: 1439-1445.
154. McAnulty RJ, Laurent GJ: Collagen synthesis and degradation in vivo. Evidence for rapid rates of collagen turnover with extensive degradation of newly synthesized collagen in the adult rat. Coll Relat Res 1987; 7: 93-104.
155. Mays PK, McAnulty RJ, Campa JS, Laurent GJ: Age-related changes in collagen synthesis and degradation in rat tissues: importance of degradation of newly synthesized collagen in regulating collagen production. Biochem J 1991; 276: 307-313.
156. Low RB, Giancola MS, King TE Jr. Chapitis J, Vacek P, Davis GS: Serum and bronchoalveolar lavage of N-terminal type III procollagen peptides in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 701-706.
157. Selman M, Montano M, Ramos C, Chapale R: Concentration, biosynthesis and degradation of collagen in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Thorax 1986; 41: 355-359.
158. Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Keogh B, Wewers MD, Adelberg S, Crystal RG: Familial idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Evidence of lung inflammation in unaffected familiy members. J Clin Invest 1986; 314: 1343-1347.
159. Perez T, Farre J, Gosset P et al: Subclinical alveolar inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis: superoxide anion, neutrophil chemotactic activity and fibronectin generation by alveolar macrophages. Eur Respir J 1989; 2: 7-13.
160. Dreisin RB, Schwarz ML, Theofilopoulos MD, Stanford RE: Circulating immune complexes in idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. N Engl J Med 1978; 298: 353-357.
161. Haslam PL, Turton CWG, Heard B, Turner-Warwick M: Bronchoalveolar lavage in pulmonary fibrosis: comparison of cells obtained with lung biopsy and clinical features. Thorax 1980; 35: 9-18.
162. Watters LC, Schwarz MI, Cherniack RM et al: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Pretreatment bronchoalveolar lavage cellular constituents and their relationship with histopathology and clinical response to therapy. Am Rev Resp Dis 1987; 135: 696-704.
163. O'Donnell K, Keogh B, Cantin A, Crystal RG: Pharmacologic suppression of the neutrophil component of the alveolitis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987; 136: 283-292.
164. Peterson MW, Monick M, Hunninghake GW: Prognostic role of eosinophils in pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1987; 92.
165. Kline JM, Schwartz D, Monick MM, Floerchinger CS, Hunninghake GW: Relative release of interleukin-1b and interleukin-1 receptor antagonist by alveolar macrophages. A study in asbestos-induced lung disease, sarcoidosis, and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1993; 104: 47-53.
166. Schwartz D, Helmers R, Galvin JR et al: Determinants of survival in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 450-454.
167. Adachi K, Yamauchi K, Bernaudin JF, Fouret P, Ferrans VJ, Crystal RG: Evaluation of fibronectin gene expression by in-situ hybridization. Differential expression of the fibronectin gene among populations of human alveolar macrophages. Am J Pathol 1988; 193-203.
168. Martinet Y, Rom WN, Grotendorst GR, Martin GR, Crystal RG: Exaggerated spontaneous release of platelet-derived growth factor by alveolar macrophages from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med 1987; 317: 202-209.
169. Kiemle-Kallee J, Kreipe H, Radzun HJ et al: Alveolar macrophages in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis display a more monocyte-like immunophenotype and an increased release of free oxygen radicals. Eur Respir J 1991; 4: 400-406.
170. Amaya M, Shijubo N, Fujii N, Oguma K, Shosaku A: Oligo-2', 5'-adenylate synthetase in pulmonary sarcoidosis and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 1994; 105: 496-500.
171. Homolka J, Müller-Quernheim J: Activation of alveolar macrophages and blood monocytes in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 1551: A53.
172. Wallace W, Ramage E, Lamb D, Howie E: A type 2 (Th2-like) pattern of immune response predominates in the pulmonary interstitium of patients with cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis (CFA). Clin Exp Immunol 1995; 101: 436-441.
173. Shaw RJ, Benedict SH, Clark RA, King TE Jr: Pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis in interstitial lung disease. Alveolar macrophage PDGF(B) gene activation and up-regulation by interferon gamma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991; 143: 167-173.
174. Robinson BWS, Rose AH: Pulmonary γ interferon production in patients with fibrosing alveolitis. Thorax 1990; 45: 105-108.
175. Schuppan D, Rühlmann T, Hahn EG: Radioimmunoassay for human type VI collagen and its application to tissue and body fluids. Analyt Biochem 1985; 149: 238-247.
176. Bateman ED, Turner-Warwick M, Adelmann-Grill BC: Immunohistochemical study of collagen types in human fetal lung and fibrotic disease. Thorax 1981; 36: 645-653.
177. Hayasaka A, Koch J, Schuppan D, Maddrey WC, Hahn EG: The serum concentration of the aminoterminal propeptide of the procollagen type III and the hepatic content of mRNA for the α1 chain of procollagen type III in carbon tetrachloride-induced rat liver fibrinogenesis. J Hepatol 1991; 13: 328-338.
178. Shahin M, Schuppan D, Waldherr R et al: Serum procollagen peptides and collagen type iv for the assessment of activity and degree of hepatic fibrosis in Schistosomiasis and alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 1992; 15: 637-644.
179. DeRemee RA: Serum lactic dehydrogenase activity and diffuse interstitial pneumonitis. JAMA 1968; 204: 1193-1195.
180. Drent M, Cobben NAM, Henderson RF, Wouters EFM, van Dieijen- Visser M: Usefulness of lactate dehydrogenase and its isoenzymes as indicators of lung damage or inflammation. Eur Respir J 1996; 9: 1736-1742.
181. Kondoh Y, Taniguchi H, Kawabata Y, Yokoi T, Suzuki K, Takagi K: Acute exacerbation in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Analysis of clinical and pathological findings in three cases. Chest 1993; 103: 1808-1812.
182. Homma Y, Ohtsuka Y, Tanimura K et al: Can interstitial pneumonia as the sole presentation of collagen vascular disease be differentiated from idiopathic interstitial pneumonia Respiration 1995; 62: 148-251.
183. Lynch JPI, Hunninghake GW (ed): Pulmonary complications of collagen vascular disease. Palo Alto: Annual Reviews Inc., 1992: 17-35. (Creger WP, Coggins CH, Hancock EW, ed. Annual review of medicine: Selected topics in the clinical sciences; vol 43).
184. Hunninghake GW, Fauci AS: Pulmonary involvement in collagen vascular diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979; 119: 471-503.
185. Epler GR, Colby TV, McLoud T, Carrington CB, Gaensler EA: Bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1985; 312: 152-158.
186. Weinrib L, Sharma OP, Quismorio FPJ: A long-term study of interstitial lung disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1990; 20: 48-56.
187. Bankier AA, Kiener HP, Wiesmayr MN et al: Discrete lung involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus: CT assessment of lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis in a patient with systemic lupus. Radiology 1995; 196(3): 835-840.
188. Nakamura Y, Ozaki T, Kamei T et al: Factors that stimulate the proliferation and survival of eosinophils in eosinophilic pleural effusion: relationship to granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-5, and interleukin-3. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1993; 8: 605-611.
189. Behr J, Vogelmaier C, Beinert T et al: Bronchoalveolar lavage for evaluation and management of scleroderma disease of the lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 400-406.
190. Araki N, Matsumoto K, Taki F et al: A case of interstitial pneumonia antedating rheumatoid arthritis. Japan J Thorac Dis 1994; 32: 249-254.
191. Cottin V, Tebib J, Massonnet B, Souquet PJ, Bernard JP: Pulmonary function in patients receiving long-term low-dose methotrexate. Chest 1993; 109: 933-938.
192. Barrera P, Laan RF, van Riel PL et al: Methotrexate-related pulmonary complications in rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1994; 53(7): 434-439.
193. Warner NB: Serological tests for connective tissue diseases and the primary vasculitis. Dermatol Clinics 1994; 12: 161-173.
194. Gross M, Esterly JR, Earle RH: Pulmonary alterations in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am Rev Respir Dis 1972; 105: 572-577.
195. Silberstein SL, Barland P, Grayzel AI, Koerner SK: Pulmonary dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus: prevalence, classification and correlation with other organ involvement. J Rheumatol 1980; 7: 187-195.
196. Hedgpeth MT, Boulware DW: Interstitial pneumonitis in antinuclear antibody-negative systemic lupus erythematosus: a new clinical manifestation and possible association with anti-ro (SS-A) antibodies. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31: 545-548.
197. Fink SD, Kremer JM: Successful treatment of interstitial lung disease in systemic lupus erythematosus with Methotrexate. J Rheumatol 1994; 22: 967-969.
198. Yood RA, Steigman DM, Gill LR: Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lups 1995; 4: 161-163.
199. Asherson RA, Cervera R: Antiphospholipid antibodies and the lung. J Rheumatol 1995; 22: 62-66.
200. Müller-Quernheim J, Botzenhardt U, von Steldern D, Lefkovits I: Increased helper cell activity of NZB-mice against H-2 identical allogeneic cells. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1988; 85: 219-226.
201. Sponk PE, Borg EJ, Huitema MG, Limburg PC, Kallemberg CGM: Chances in the levels of T-cell activation markers, sIL-2R, sCD4 and sCD8, in relation to disease exacerbations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study. Ann Rheum Dis 1994; 53: 235-239.
202. Font J, Pallares L, Martorelli J et al: Elevated soluble CD27 levels in serum of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1996; 81: 239-243.
203. Zitnik RJ, Cooper JAJ: Pulmonary disease due to amirheumatic agents. Clin Chest Med 1990; 11: 139-154.
204. Wiedeman HP, Matthay RA: Pulmonary manifestations of the collagen vascular diseases. Clin Chest Med 1989; 10: 677-721.
205. Gilligan DM, O'Connor CM, Ward K, Moloney D, Bresnihan B, Fitzgerald MX: Bronchoalveolar lavage in patients with mild and severe rheumatoid lung disease. Thorax 1990; 45: 591-596.
206. Briggs D, Stephens C, Vaughan R, Welsh K, Black C: A molecular and serologic analysis of the major histocompatibility complex and complement component C4 in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 1993; 36: 943-954.
207. Steen VD, Powell DL, Medsger TAJ: Clinical correlations and prognosis based on serum autoantibodies in patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum 1988; 31: 196-203.
208. Sato S, Ihn H, Kikuchi K, Takehara K: Antihistone antibodies in systemic sclerosis. Association with pulmonary fibrosis. Arthritis Rheum 1994; 37(4): 391-394.
209. Targoff IN, Arnett FC: Clinical manifestations in patients with antibody to PL-12 antigen (alanyl-tRNA symhetase). Am J Med 1990; 88: 241-251
210. Targoff IN: Immune manifestations of inflammatory muscle disease. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 1994; 20: 857-880.
211. Clawson K, Oddis CV: A respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in myositis patients with anti-Jo-1 antibody. Arthritis Rheum 1993; 36: S256.
212. Friedman AW, Targoff IN, Arnett FC: Interstitial lung disease with autoantibodies against aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in the absence of clinically appearent myositis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1996; 26: 459-467.
213. Hunninghake GW, Gilbert S, Pueringer R et al: Outcome of the treatment of sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 893-898.
214. Schwartz D, van Fossen DS, Davis C et al: Determinants of progression in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 444-449.
215. Hunninghake G, Kalica A: Approaches to the treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151: 915-918.