'Otherness' and the frontiers of empire: The Eastern Cape Colony, 1806-c.1850

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 2-19

  Lester, Alan ^a  

^a ST MARY'S UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL HISTORY; IMPERIALISM; POST-COLONIALISM; RACIAL DIFFERENCE;

SOUTH AFRICA, EASTERN CAPE PROVINCE;

EID: 0031809297     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhge.1997.0073     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. E. W. Said, Orientalism (London 1978
2. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
3. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
4. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
5. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
6. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
7. H. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London 1994); A. Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism (Delhi 1983) xv. For a convincing critique, see D. Kennedy, Imperial history and post-colonial theory, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 24 (1996) 345-63 , 346. For criticism of Said's own neglect of historical context, see J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester 1995) and L. Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca 1992). For a criticism of Spivak, B. Parry, Problems in current theories of colonial discourse, Oxford Literary Review 9 (1987) 1-2.
8. Kennedy, op. cit. singles out for this criticism B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths and H. Tiffin (Eds), The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures (London 1989); L. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender, and Empire-Building (Chapel Hill 1992) and D. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel- Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham 1993).
9. Kennedy, op. cit. singles out for this criticism B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths and H. Tiffin (Eds), The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures (London 1989); L. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender, and Empire-Building (Chapel Hill 1992) and D. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel- Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham 1993).
10. Kennedy, op. cit. singles out for this criticism B. Ashcroft, G. Griffiths and H. Tiffin (Eds), The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures (London 1989); L. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms: Race, Gender, and Empire-Building (Chapel Hill 1992) and D. Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel-Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham 1993).
11. D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford 1994) 165-205; J. Crush, Post-colonialism, de-colonisation and geography, in A. Godlewska and N. Smith (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994) 333-50.
12. D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations (Oxford 1994) 165-205; J. Crush, Post-colonialism, de-colonisation and geography, in A. Godlewska and N. Smith (Eds), Geography and Empire (Oxford 1994) 333-50.
13. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
14. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
15. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
16. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
17. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
18. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
19. See for example the influential R. Young, White Mythologies: Writing History and the West (London 1990). For metropolitan-based literary approaches, see G. Ching-Liang Low, His stories? Narratives and images of imperialism, and his White skins/black masks: the pleasures and politics of imperialism, in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (Eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London 1993) 187-220 and 241-66. Notable and important exceptions include P Carter, The Road to Botany Bay: An Essay in Spatial History (London 1987); T. Mitchell, Colonizing Egypt (Cambridge 1988); C. Crais, White Supremacy and Black Resistance in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Cambridge 1992), A. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's 'History of Sexuality' and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham 1995) and J. Duncan, The power of place in Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1780-1980, in J. Agnew and J. Duncan (Eds), The Power of Place (London 1989) 185-201.
20. M. L. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London 1992).
21. See also T. Youngs, Travellers in Africa: British Travelogues, 1850-1900 (Manchester 1994)
22. and S. Mills, Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London 1991).
23. Within geography see also A. Blunt, Travel, Gender, and Imperialism: Mary Kingsley and West Africa (New York 1994).
24. For example, D. Livingstone, The Geographical Tradition (Oxford 1992) 216-59,
25. M. Heffernan, The science of empire: the French geographical movement and the forms of French imperialism, 1870-1920,
26. in Godlewska and Smith, op. cit. 92-114 and
27. F. Driver, Geography's empire: histories of geographical knowledge, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 10 (1992) 23-40.
28. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London 1989). For two influential post-colonial studies which take into account important aspects of this period, see Carter, op. cit. and Mitchell, op. cit.
29. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London 1989). For two influential post-colonial studies which take into account important aspects of this period, see Carter, op. cit. and Mitchell, op. cit.
30. C. A. Bayly, Imperial Meridian: The British Empire and the World, 1780-1830 (London 1989). For two influential post-colonial studies which take into account important aspects of this period, see Carter, op. cit. and Mitchell, op. cit.
31. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
32. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
33. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
34. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
35. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
36. See Bayly, op. cit.; Carter, op. cit; V. Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind: European Attitudes to Other Cultures in the Imperial Age (London 1995); J. Belich, The Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict: The Maori, The British and the New Zealand Wars (Montreal 1986); P. Curtin, The Image of Africa: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850 (Madison 1964) and J. Roseberry, Imperial Rule in the Punjab: The Conquest and Administration of Multan, 1818-1881 (New Delhi 1987).
37. For example, both metropolitan Philosophic Radicalism and the work of John Stuart Mill have been set in the context of colonial activity in early nineteenth-century India. The abolition of colonial slavery inspired Wollstonecraft's analysis of British gender relations, and humanitarian discourses of colonization (as we shall see, themselves generated significantly on the peripheries of empire) were also employed in a British feminist cause. See J. Majeed, L. Zastoupil, M. Ferguson and A. Burton, cited in Kennedy, op. cit., 358-9. See also R. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London 1995) chapters 2 and 3. For colonial acts being integral to English national identity, see the collection edited by B. Schwarz, The Expansion of England: Race, Ethnicity and Cultural History (London 1996).
38. For example, both metropolitan Philosophic Radicalism and the work of John Stuart Mill have been set in the context of colonial activity in early nineteenth-century India. The abolition of colonial slavery inspired Wollstonecraft's analysis of British gender relations, and humanitarian discourses of colonization (as we shall see, themselves generated significantly on the peripheries of empire) were also employed in a British feminist cause. See J. Majeed, L. Zastoupil, M. Ferguson and A. Burton, cited in Kennedy, op. cit., 358-9. See also R. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London 1995) chapters 2 and 3. For colonial acts being integral to English national identity, see the collection edited by B. Schwarz, The Expansion of England: Race, Ethnicity and Cultural History (London 1996).
39. For example, both metropolitan Philosophic Radicalism and the work of John Stuart Mill have been set in the context of colonial activity in early nineteenth-century India. The abolition of colonial slavery inspired Wollstonecraft's analysis of British gender relations, and humanitarian discourses of colonization (as we shall see, themselves generated significantly on the peripheries of empire) were also employed in a British feminist cause. See J. Majeed, L. Zastoupil, M. Ferguson and A. Burton, cited in Kennedy, op. cit., 358-9. See also R. Young, Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London 1995) chapters 2 and 3. For colonial acts being integral to English national identity, see the collection edited by B. Schwarz, The Expansion of England: Race, Ethnicity and Cultural History (London 1996).
40. The only other British administration in Africa at the time when the Cape was taken, apart from minor trading posts, was that in Sierra Leone, where a humanitarian-inspired trading company had governed freed slaves since 1793. See Curtin, op. cit., vol. 1 chapters 4 and 5.
41. For introductory overviews see S. Lee, British Political History, 1815-1914 (London 1994); E. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783-1870 (Harlow 1996) and E. Halevy, The Liberal Awakening, 1815-1830: A History of the English People Vol. 2 (London 1987). See also P Cain and A. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (London 1993) 71-101, and references cited there.
42. For introductory overviews see S. Lee, British Political History, 1815-1914 (London 1994); E. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783-1870 (Harlow 1996) and E. Halevy, The Liberal Awakening, 1815-1830: A History of the English People Vol. 2 (London 1987). See also P Cain and A. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (London 1993) 71-101, and references cited there.
43. For introductory overviews see S. Lee, British Political History, 1815-1914 (London 1994); E. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783-1870 (Harlow 1996) and E. Halevy, The Liberal Awakening, 1815-1830: A History of the English People Vol. 2 (London 1987). See also P Cain and A. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (London 1993) 71-101, and references cited there.
44. For introductory overviews see S. Lee, British Political History, 1815-1914 (London 1994); E. Evans, The Forging of the Modern State: Early Industrial Britain, 1783-1870 (Harlow 1996) and E. Halevy, The Liberal Awakening, 1815-1830: A History of the English People Vol. 2 (London 1987). See also P Cain and A. Hopkins, British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688-1914 (London 1993) 71-101, and references cited there.
45. This metropolitan shift was intricately connected to changes within the colonies. Early nineteenth-century gubernatorial colonial governments had been an extension of the authoritarian metropolitan government itself (Bayly, op. cit.). Colonial representations for self- government later combined with and influenced metropolitan free-trade thinking. See J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, The imperialism of free trade, 1815-1914, Economic History Review 6 (1953) 4. For a critique, see Cain and Hopkins, op. cit., 229-43.
46. This metropolitan shift was intricately connected to changes within the colonies. Early nineteenth-century gubernatorial colonial governments had been an extension of the authoritarian metropolitan government itself (Bayly, op. cit.). Colonial representations for self- government later combined with and influenced metropolitan free-trade thinking. See J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, The imperialism of free trade, 1815-1914, Economic History Review 6 (1953) 4. For a critique, see Cain and Hopkins, op. cit., 229-43.
47. This metropolitan shift was intricately connected to changes within the colonies. Early nineteenth-century gubernatorial colonial governments had been an extension of the authoritarian metropolitan government itself (Bayly, op. cit.). Colonial representations for self- government later combined with and influenced metropolitan free-trade thinking. See J. Gallagher and R. Robinson, The imperialism of free trade, 1815-1914, Economic History Review 6 (1953) 4. For a critique, see Cain and Hopkins, op. cit., 229-43.
48. For a seminal analysis emphasizing frontier interactions other than racial conflict see M. Legassick, The frontier tradition in South African historiography, in S. Marks and A. Atmore (Eds), Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Harlow 1980) 44-79. For a qualification, see S. Newton-King, The Enemy Within: The Struggle for Ascendancy on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760-1799 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, London University 1992).
49. For a seminal analysis emphasizing frontier interactions other than racial conflict see M. Legassick, The frontier tradition in South African historiography, in S. Marks and A. Atmore (Eds), Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa (Harlow 1980) 44-79. For a qualification, see S. Newton-King, The Enemy Within: The Struggle for Ascendancy on the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1760-1799 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, London University 1992).
50. J. S. Galbraith, Reluctant Empire: British Policy on the South African Frontier, 1834-1854 (Berkeley 1963) 50.
51. For humanitarian approaches, see J. Philip, Researches in South Africa 2 Vols. (London 1828); A. Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen 1986); H. Botha, John Fairbairn in South Africa (Cape Town 1984); J. G. Pretorius, The British Humanitarians and the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1834-1836 (Pretoria 1988) and Public Record Office London (hereafter PRO) n.d. (1836?) CO 48/165 M. Beecham, Paper Prepared by Mr Beecham for the Use of Mr Buxton: The Cape of Good Hope.
52. For humanitarian approaches, see J. Philip, Researches in South Africa 2 Vols. (London 1828); A. Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen 1986); H. Botha, John Fairbairn in South Africa (Cape Town 1984); J. G. Pretorius, The British Humanitarians and the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1834-1836 (Pretoria 1988) and Public Record Office London (hereafter PRO) n.d. (1836?) CO 48/165 M. Beecham, Paper Prepared by Mr Beecham for the Use of Mr Buxton: The Cape of Good Hope.
53. For humanitarian approaches, see J. Philip, Researches in South Africa 2 Vols. (London 1828); A. Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen 1986); H. Botha, John Fairbairn in South Africa (Cape Town 1984); J. G. Pretorius, The British Humanitarians and the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1834-1836 (Pretoria 1988) and Public Record Office London (hereafter PRO) n.d. (1836?) CO 48/165 M. Beecham, Paper Prepared by Mr Beecham for the Use of Mr Buxton: The Cape of Good Hope.
54. For humanitarian approaches, see J. Philip, Researches in South Africa 2 Vols. (London 1828); A. Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen 1986); H. Botha, John Fairbairn in South Africa (Cape Town 1984); J. G. Pretorius, The British Humanitarians and the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1834-1836 (Pretoria 1988) and Public Record Office London (hereafter PRO) n.d. (1836?) CO 48/165 M. Beecham, Paper Prepared by Mr Beecham for the Use of Mr Buxton: The Cape of Good Hope.
55. For humanitarian approaches, see J. Philip, Researches in South Africa 2 Vols. (London 1828); A. Ross, John Philip (1775-1851): Missions, Race and Politics in South Africa (Aberdeen 1986); H. Botha, John Fairbairn in South Africa (Cape Town 1984); J. G. Pretorius, The British Humanitarians and the Cape Eastern Frontier, 1834-1836 (Pretoria 1988) and Public Record Office London (hereafter PRO) n.d. (1836?) CO 48/165 M. Beecham, Paper Prepared by Mr Beecham for the Use of Mr Buxton: The Cape of Good Hope.
56. Ross, op. cit., 141.
57. M. Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism in the nineteenth-century Cape Colony, South African Historical Journal 28 (1993) 329-68, 338.
58. For settler-Wesleyan connections, see M. D. Nash, The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers (Cape Town 1987), B. Le Cordeur, Eastern Cape Separatism, 1820-1854 (Cape Town 1981) 68 and T. Keegan, Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order (London 1996) 65-7. Also, E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London 1988) chapters 2 and 11.
59. For settler-Wesleyan connections, see M. D. Nash, The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers (Cape Town 1987), B. Le Cordeur, Eastern Cape Separatism, 1820-1854 (Cape Town 1981) 68 and T. Keegan, Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order (London 1996) 65-7. Also, E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London 1988) chapters 2 and 11.
60. For settler-Wesleyan connections, see M. D. Nash, The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers (Cape Town 1987), B. Le Cordeur, Eastern Cape Separatism, 1820-1854 (Cape Town 1981) 68 and T. Keegan, Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order (London 1996) 65-7. Also, E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London 1988) chapters 2 and 11.
61. For settler-Wesleyan connections, see M. D. Nash, The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers (Cape Town 1987), B. Le Cordeur, Eastern Cape Separatism, 1820-1854 (Cape Town 1981) 68 and T. Keegan, Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order (London 1996) 65-7. Also, E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (London 1988) chapters 2 and 11.
62. Colonial resistance to the full assimilation of conquered black foes at first bemused Xhosa chiefs who practised the eventual integration of conquered peoples. Unfortunately, given the emphasis here on changing British constructions, there is insufficient space to elaborate on Xhosa constructions of British colonialism, but see J. Peires, The House of Phalo: A History of the Xhosa People in the Days of Their Independence (Johannesburg 1982).
63. Cape (Government) Archives Cape Town (hereafter CA) GH 23/2 Calderwood to Castlereagh 18 Sept. 1809.
64. CA A 602/2 Journal of S. H. Hudson, Bathurst 1821 (no precise date).
65. For a brief overview of earlier British views of southern African 'others', see A. Lester, From Colonization to Democracy: A New Historical Geography of South Africa (London 1996) chapter 1. For a more detailed analysis of spatial strategy during this period, see A. Lester, Cultural construction and spatial strategy on the Eastern Cape frontier, 1806-c.1838, South African Geographical Journal 78 (1996) 98-107.
66. For a brief overview of earlier British views of southern African 'others', see A. Lester, From Colonization to Democracy: A New Historical Geography of South Africa (London 1996) chapter 1. For a more detailed analysis of spatial strategy during this period, see A. Lester, Cultural construction and spatial strategy on the Eastern Cape frontier, 1806-c.1838, South African Geographical Journal 78 (1996) 98-107.
67. For the ambiguities of this boundary see W. M. Macmillan, Bantu, Boer and Briton: The Making of the South African Native Problem (Oxford 1963) 45.
68. CA GH 28/4 Cradock to Graham 6 Oct. 1811.
69. CA CO 5807 Government Proclamation 21 Aug. 1810.
70. CA GH 23/5 Somerset to Bathurst 24 Apr. 1817.
71. A. Millar, Plantagenet in South Africa: Lord Charles Somerset (Cape Town 1965) inside cover.
72. For Somerset's individual background see ibid. For the general situation regarding reform as anti-revolutionary strategy see Lee, op. cit., 15-28 and Evans, op. cit., 223-30.
73. For Somerset's individual background see ibid. For the general situation regarding reform as anti-revolutionary strategy see Lee, op. cit., 15-28 and Evans, op. cit., 223-30.
74. For Somerset's individual background see ibid. For the general situation regarding reform as anti-revolutionary strategy see Lee, op. cit., 15-28 and Evans, op. cit., 223-30.
75. CA GH 23/5 Somerset to Bathurst 24 Apr. 1817.
76. CA GH 1/20 Goulbourn to Somerset 22 Oct. 1816.
77. CA GH 23/5 Somerset to Bathurst 24 Apr. 1817.
78. Peires, House of Phalo, 143-5 and N. Mostert, Frontiers: The Epic of South Africa's Creation and the Tragedy of the Xhosa People (London 1992) 472-9.
79. Peires, House of Phalo, 143-5 and N. Mostert, Frontiers: The Epic of South Africa's Creation and the Tragedy of the Xhosa People (London 1992) 472-9.
80. Col. Collins, Supplement to the Relations of a Journey into the Country of the Bosjesman and Caffre People, in D. Moodie, The Record or a Series of Official Papers Relative to the Condition and Treatment of the Native Tribes of South Africa (Cape Town 1960) V 18-19.
81. B. Maclennan, A Proper Degree of Terror: John Graham and the Cape's Eastern Frontier (Johannesburg 1986) 161-2; J. Peires, The British and the Cape, 1814-1834, in R. Elphick and H. Giliomee (Eds), The Shaping of South African Society, 1652-1840 (Middletown 1989) 474.
82. B. Maclennan, A Proper Degree of Terror: John Graham and the Cape's Eastern Frontier (Johannesburg 1986) 161-2; J. Peires, The British and the Cape, 1814-1834, in R. Elphick and H. Giliomee (Eds), The Shaping of South African Society, 1652-1840 (Middletown 1989) 474.
83. Peires, The British and the Cape, 474.
84. Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism, 333-4.
85. See Mostert, op. cit. 524-34, 541-50; Crais, op. cit. 87-95; and in particular, Nash, op. cit.
86. See Mostert, op. cit. 524-34, 541-50; Crais, op. cit. 87-95; and in particular, Nash, op. cit.
87. See Mostert, op. cit. 524-34, 541-50; Crais, op. cit. 87-95; and in particular, Nash, op. cit.
88. Graham's Town Journal (hereafter GTJ) 24 Dec. 1835.
89. Peires, The British and the Cape, 472.
90. Cape wool exports, produced largely in the east, increased from 114,000 lb. in 1834 to 5,500,000 lb. in 1851 and became the colony's most significant export commodity by far (Macmillan op. cit., 193). See also Keegan, op. cit., 72 and 158-61.
91. Cape wool exports, produced largely in the east, increased from 114,000 lb. in 1834 to 5,500,000 lb. in 1851 and became the colony's most significant export commodity by far (Macmillan op. cit., 193). See also Keegan, op. cit., 72 and 158-61.
92. A. Lester, Settlers, the state and colonial power: The colonization of Queen Adelaide Province, 1834-37, Journal of African History (forthcoming). See also Keegan, op. cit., chapter 5.
93. A. Lester, Settlers, the state and colonial power: The colonization of Queen Adelaide Province, 1834-37, Journal of African History (forthcoming). See also Keegan, op. cit., chapter 5.
94. GTJ 12 May 1836.
95. Many may actually have been influenced before they even left Britain. A well-known cartoon by Cruikshank for instance portrayed the prospective settlers being eaten alive by cannibals upon their arrival on the frontier. Titled Blessings of Emigration to the Cape of Forlorn/ Good Hope (with a line drawn through Forlorn), the cartoon is now in the William Fehr Collection, Cape Town.
96. For the official policies of the Xhosa's "improvement" and increasing tolerance of their interaction with settlers during this brief period see Lester, Cultural construction and spatial strategy, 101-2.
97. Cory Library, Grahamstown, MS 17042 Somerset papers, 5 Feb. 1828 and South African Commercial Advertiser 22 Feb. 1834. See also PRO CO 58/165 Beecham op. cit., T. Stapleton, Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance, 1798-1873 (Johannesburg 1994) 63-99 and Mostert, op. cit. 635-6.
98. Cory Library, Grahamstown, MS 17042 Somerset papers, 5 Feb. 1828 and South African Commercial Advertiser 22 Feb. 1834. See also PRO CO 58/165 Beecham op. cit., T. Stapleton, Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance, 1798-1873 (Johannesburg 1994) 63-99 and Mostert, op. cit. 635-6.
99. Cory Library, Grahamstown, MS 17042 Somerset papers, 5 Feb. 1828 and South African Commercial Advertiser 22 Feb. 1834. See also PRO CO 58/165 Beecham op. cit., T. Stapleton, Maqoma: Xhosa Resistance to Colonial Advance, 1798-1873 (Johannesburg 1994) 63-99 and Mostert, op. cit. 635-6.
100. This was despite the fact that some Xhosa chiefs, notably those given land concessions in the ceded territory, collaborated with the British (see Lester, Settlers, the state and colonial power).
101. Smith was forced to fabricate a version of events surrounding the death in order to defend himself before an imperial court of enquiry. See Pretorius, op. cit., chapter 6.
102. The best account of the attack is Mostert, op. cit., 664-82.
103. GTJ 23 Jan. 1835, letter from Southey, Southey and Shaw.
104. CA GH 22/1 Smith to D'Urban 14 Jan. 1835.
105. For the former, see GTJ 1 Dec. 1836, letter from 'A Kafir Doctor'.
106. GTJ 15 Oct. 1835, letter from 'A'.
107. GTJ 21 Apr. 1836, anonymous letter.
108. GTJ 4 Feb. 1836, letter from Capt. Fawcett and editorial response. See also settlers' letters in subsequent issues.
109. GTJ 12 Nov. 1835 and 10 Dec. 1835. See also A. Bank, Of "native skulls" and "noble caucasians": phrenology in colonial South Africa, Journal of Southern African Studies 22 (1996) 387-403.
110. See S. Dubow, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge 1995) 20-66 and Bank, Of "native skulls". It is also worth noting that Robert Knox, widely regarded as one of the founding fathers of British 'scientific racism', served as army surgeon on the Cape frontier during the Fifth Frontier War. See Legassick, The frontier tradition, 78 n.116 and Bank, Of "native skulls", 393.
111. This is a point emphasized by Crais, op. cit., Mostert, op. cit., Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism and Keegan op. cit.
112. This is a point emphasized by Crais, op. cit., Mostert, op. cit., Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism and Keegan op. cit.
113. This is a point emphasized by Crais, op. cit., Mostert, op. cit., Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism and Keegan op. cit.
114. This is a point emphasized by Crais, op. cit., Mostert, op. cit., Legassick, The state, racism and the rise of capitalism and Keegan op. cit.
115. Bank, Of "native skulls", 402. Bank refers to the similar popularity of phrenology among settlers in Australia and New Zealand, in the latter, particularly after the Maori wars of the 1850s and 1860s.
116. CA GH 28/12/1 D'Urban to Glenelg 19 June 1835 enclosure no. 14: Shrewsbury's Thoughts on the Principles to be Adopted in Reference to the Kafir Tribes 10 Jan. 1835. Shrewsbury was censured for his comments by both the metropolitan Wesleyan Society and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Glenelg.
117. CA GH 23/11 D'Urban to Spring Rice 21 Jan. 1835.
118. CA GH 28/12/1 D'Urban to Glenelg 19 June 1835.
119. For use of the phrase see CA GH 28/12/1 enclosure 18 Smith to D'Urban undated (May-June 1835?) and CA CO 5831 Government Proclamation 10 May 1835. For Philip's reaction see Macmillan, op. cit., 145 and Galbraith, op. cit., 111.
120. For use of the phrase see CA GH 28/12/1 enclosure 18 Smith to D'Urban undated (May-June 1835?) and CA CO 5831 Government Proclamation 10 May 1835. For Philip's reaction see Macmillan, op. cit., 145 and Galbraith, op. cit., 111.
121. CA GH 19/4 D'Urban's confidential Notes Upon the Treaties Signed With the Xhosa 17 Sept. 1835.
122. Mostert, op. cit., 763.
123. Pretorius, op. cit., 121.
124. L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707-1837 (London 1992) 351.
125. Ibid., 353.
126. Ibid., 353-5.
127. CA GH 1/114 Glenelg to D'Urban 1 May 1837.
128. Philip would today be described as a capable 'spin doctor'. For example, knowing full well that Maqoma's Xhosa had resented deeply the confiscation of their land along the Kat River, Philip was still able to persuade his London superiors that they had been only too happy to see it allocated to fellow-oppressed Khoikhoi in order that they may be redeemed at the hands of the LMS mission. See Pretorius, op. cit., 165; CA A50 Vol. 4, Stretch to Fairbairn 4 Oct. 1836.
129. Philip, op. cit.
130. For the committee, see Pretorius, op. cit., chapter 5. In addition to the Aborigines Committee, in 1836 a military Court of Enquiry was established on the Cape frontier to investigate the killing and mutilation of Hintsa. This enquiry was in a sense a microcosm of contemporary peripheral-metropolitan ideological interaction: on the one hand, there was a diversity of colonial interests, with settlers defending Smith and the culpable colonists, colonial officials closing ranks and local humanitarians calling vociferously for justice. And on the other hand, there was a liberal metropolitan intervention prompted by concern over the apparent degradation of settlers in contact with barbarism, and enormously resented by those settlers and their officials. Ultimately the court condemned the barbarity of Hintsa's killing but fixed the crime on no-one in particular. PRO CO 48/185 Report of Inquiry into Hintsa's Death.
131. CA GH 1/107 Glenelg to D'Urban 26 Dec. 1835.
132. See most issues of The Graham's Town Journal throughout 1836.
133. The Times 5 Jan. 1836.
134. GTJ 1 Apr. and 19 May 1836.
135. CA GH 23/11 D'Urban to Glenelg 9 June 1836.
136. Evans, op. cit. 223.
137. N. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain 1800-1960 (London 1982).
138. T. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore 1992); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes Towards Race (London 1971); Belich, op. cit; C. Hall, Imperial man: Edward Eyre in Australasia and the West Indies, 1833-1866, in Schwarz (Ed.), op. cit. 130-70; A. Bank, Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820-1850 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge 1995).
139. T. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore 1992); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes Towards Race (London 1971); Belich, op. cit; C. Hall, Imperial man: Edward Eyre in Australasia and the West Indies, 1833-1866, in Schwarz (Ed.), op. cit. 130-70; A. Bank, Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820-1850 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge 1995).
140. T. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore 1992); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes Towards Race (London 1971); Belich, op. cit; C. Hall, Imperial man: Edward Eyre in Australasia and the West Indies, 1833-1866, in Schwarz (Ed.), op. cit. 130-70; A. Bank, Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820-1850 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge 1995).
141. T. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore 1992); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes Towards Race (London 1971); Belich, op. cit; C. Hall, Imperial man: Edward Eyre in Australasia and the West Indies, 1833-1866, in Schwarz (Ed.), op. cit. 130-70; A. Bank, Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820-1850 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge 1995).
142. T. Holt, The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labour and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832-1938 (Baltimore 1992); C. Bolt, Victorian Attitudes Towards Race (London 1971); Belich, op. cit; C. Hall, Imperial man: Edward Eyre in Australasia and the West Indies, 1833-1866, in Schwarz (Ed.), op. cit. 130-70; A. Bank, Liberals and Their Enemies: Racial Ideology at the Cape of Good Hope, 1820-1850 (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge 1995).
143. Belich, op. cit., 328.
144. These were ranged alongside Eyre, defending his hanging of the "savage" Jamaican rebels.
145. This war marked Fairbairn's final abandonment of humanitarian support for the Xhosa, and his transition to a less sympathetic and more utilitarian political economy. In this scheme, the Xhosa's conquest should be effected for their own good. See Botha, op. cit., chapters 6 and 7 and Keegan, op. cit., 216-7).
146. Smith was now governor. See A. Lester, The margins of order: strategies of segregation on the Eastern Cape Frontier, 1806-c.1850, Journal of Southern African Studies 23, 4 (1997) 635-53.
147. Ibid.
148. See Le Cordeur, op. cit.
149. See J. Peires, The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856-7 (Johannesburg 1989).