Old linkages, new networks: the globalization of overseas Chinese voluntary associations and its implications

China Quarterly

Volumn , Issue 155, 1998, Pages 582-609

  Liu, Hong ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLOBALIZATION; IMMIGRANT POPULATION; SOCIAL NETWORK;

EID: 0031792907     PISSN: 00094439     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. A voluntary association is defined as "any public, formally constituted, and non-commercial organisation of which membership is optional, within a particular society" (Gordon Marshall, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 557). It should be remembered that Chinese voluntary associations differ from those in the West. As Gary Hamilton points out, "voluntary associations are clubs with members, with precise organizational boundaries, with some kind of governing body and specific purpose, and with written duties and responsibilities for the members. Chinese associations, however, are not so clear-cut as these, and are not so well defined and neatly bounded. Rather, these Chinese groups focus on the relationships that bind members into a common identity and that form a moral community out of which a sense of duty and obligation arises" (Gary Hamilton, "Competition and organization: a reexamination of Chinese business practices," Journal of Asian Business, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1996), p. 18). See also Chen Boliang, Zhongguo de hui yu she (Societies and Associations in China) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1996) for a more detailed discussion on the role of shetuan in fostering group identity.
2. A voluntary association is defined as "any public, formally constituted, and non-commercial organisation of which membership is optional, within a particular society" (Gordon Marshall, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 557). It should be remembered that Chinese voluntary associations differ from those in the West. As Gary Hamilton points out, "voluntary associations are clubs with members, with precise organizational boundaries, with some kind of governing body and specific purpose, and with written duties and responsibilities for the members. Chinese associations, however, are not so clear-cut as these, and are not so well defined and neatly bounded. Rather, these Chinese groups focus on the relationships that bind members into a common identity and that form a moral community out of which a sense of duty and obligation arises" (Gary Hamilton, "Competition and organization: a reexamination of Chinese business practices," Journal of Asian Business, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1996), p. 18). See also Chen Boliang, Zhongguo de hui yu she (Societies and Associations in China) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1996) for a more detailed discussion on the role of shetuan in fostering group identity.
3. A voluntary association is defined as "any public, formally constituted, and non-commercial organisation of which membership is optional, within a particular society" (Gordon Marshall, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Sociology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 557). It should be remembered that Chinese voluntary associations differ from those in the West. As Gary Hamilton points out, "voluntary associations are clubs with members, with precise organizational boundaries, with some kind of governing body and specific purpose, and with written duties and responsibilities for the members. Chinese associations, however, are not so clear-cut as these, and are not so well defined and neatly bounded. Rather, these Chinese groups focus on the relationships that bind members into a common identity and that form a moral community out of which a sense of duty and obligation arises" (Gary Hamilton, "Competition and organization: a reexamination of Chinese business practices," Journal of Asian Business, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1996), p. 18). See also Chen Boliang, Zhongguo de hui yu she (Societies and Associations in China) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1996) for a more detailed discussion on the role of shetuan in fostering group identity.
4. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
5. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
6. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
7. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
8. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
9. See Maurice Freedman, "Immigrants and associations: Chinese in nineteenth century Singapore," in William Skinner (ed.), The Study of Chinese Society: Essays by Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979), pp. 61-83; Li Minghuan, Dangdai haiwai huaren shetuan yanjiu (A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations) (Xiamen: Xiamen daxue chubanshe, 1995); L. W. Crissman, "The segmentary structure of urban Overseas Chinese communities," Man, Vol. 2, pp. 185-204; Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation: some unexplored aspects in huiguan development in Singapore, 1900-1941," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 26, No. 3 (1992), pp. 469-494. For a general critique of Overseas Chinese studies, see Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism (New York: Routledge, 1997); and Ye Chunrong, "Renleixue de haiwa ihuaren yanjiu: jianlun yi ge xin de fangxiang" ("Anthropological studies of the Overseas Chinese: towards a new direction"), Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica, Vol. 75 (1994), pp. 171-201.
10. Ever after its first appearance in the late 9th century, the term "Overseas Chinese," meaning Chinese sojourners, was subject to heated, sometimes politicized debates. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been justifiably criticized for its China-centric connotations and its ignorance of the fact that the majority of ethnic Chinese living outside of the PRC, Hong Kong and Taiwan have becomes citizens of their residing nations. It is therefore mistaken and problematic to continue to term these people as "Overseas Chinese." See Wang Gungwu, "The origin of hua-chiao," in Wang Gungwu, Community and Nation: Chinese, Southeast Asia and Australia (St Leonards, NSW): Allen and Unwin for the Asian Studies Association of Australia, 1992), pp. 1-10; and Leo Suryadinata, "Ethnic Chinese in Southeast Asia: Overseas Chinese, Chinese overseas, or Southeast Asians?" in Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1997), pp. 1-24.
11. Ever after its first appearance in the late 9th century, the term "Overseas Chinese," meaning Chinese sojourners, was subject to heated, sometimes politicized debates. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been justifiably criticized for its China-centric connotations and its ignorance of the fact that the majority of ethnic Chinese living outside of the PRC, Hong Kong and Taiwan have becomes citizens of their residing nations. It is therefore mistaken and problematic to continue to term these people as "Overseas Chinese." See Wang Gungwu, "The origin of hua-chiao," in Wang Gungwu, Community and Nation: Chinese, Southeast Asia and Australia (St Leonards, NSW): Allen and Unwin for the Asian Studies Association of Australia, 1992), pp. 1-10; and Leo Suryadinata, "Ethnic Chinese in Southeast Asia: Overseas Chinese, Chinese overseas, or Southeast Asians?" in Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1997), pp. 1-24.
12. For example, Yuen-fong Woon, "Social change and continuity in south China: Overseas Chinese and the Guan lineage of Kaiping county, 1949-87," The China Quarterly, No. 118 (1989), pp. 324-344; and Elizabeth Sinn, "Xin Xi Guxiang: a study of regional associations as a bonding mechanism in the Chinese diaspora. The Hong Kong experience," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 31, No. 2 (1997), pp. 375-397.
13. For example, Yuen-fong Woon, "Social change and continuity in south China: Overseas Chinese and the Guan lineage of Kaiping county, 1949-87," The China Quarterly, No. 118 (1989), pp. 324-344; and Elizabeth Sinn, "Xin Xi Guxiang: a study of regional associations as a bonding mechanism in the Chinese diaspora. The Hong Kong experience," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 31, No. 2 (1997), pp. 375-397.
14. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
15. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
16. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
17. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
18. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
19. Writing in 1994, Mayfair Mei-hui Yang reported that "it is very difficult to form voluntary associations in China." See her Gifts, Favors, and Banquets: The Art of Social Relationships in China (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), p. 301. Although there are signs of certain types of rising associations, such as business associations in the city and the partially revived lineage associations in qiaoxiang, these are normally established or restored on the government's initiative and operate in a totally different environment from their overseas counterparts. With a few notable exceptions, they are not involved in the collective globalizing move led by Overseas Chinese voluntary associations. For an analysis of those new associations, see Jonathan Unger, "Bridges: private business, the Chinese government and the rise of the new associations," The China Quarterly, No. 147 (1996), pp. 795-819; Christopher Earl Nevitt, "Private business associations in China: evidence of civil society or local state power?" China Journal, No. 36 (1996), pp. 25-46; and Yuen-fong Woon, "Social chance and continuity in south China." For a fuller discussion of the distinctions between the state and societal forces in China and South-East Asia and some relevant literature, see Elizabeth J. Perry, "Trends in the study of Chinese politics: state-society relations," The China Quarterly, No. 139 (1994), pp. 704-718; and Gary Hawes and Hong Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy: state, society, and the search for economic growth," World Politics, Vol. 45, No. 4 (1993), pp. 629-660.
20. On this issue, see the useful discussion in Li Minghuan, "Transnational links among the Chinese in Europe: a study on European-wide Chinese voluntary associations," in Gregor Benton and Frank N. Picke (eds.), The Chinese in Europe (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan Press and St. Martin's Press, 1998), pp. 21-42.
21. Michael Kearney, "The local and the global: the anthropology of globalization and transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 24 (1995), p. 548. On the theoretical aspects of the connections between globalization and migration/diasporas, see the stimulating analyses in Wang Gungwu, "Migration history: some patterns revisited," and Robin Cohen, "Diasporas, the nation-state, and globalisation," in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 1-22, 117-144.
22. Michael Kearney, "The local and the global: the anthropology of globalization and transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 24 (1995), p. 548. On the theoretical aspects of the connections between globalization and migration/diasporas, see the stimulating analyses in Wang Gungwu, "Migration history: some patterns revisited," and Robin Cohen, "Diasporas, the nation-state, and globalisation," in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 1-22, 117-144.
23. Michael Kearney, "The local and the global: the anthropology of globalization and transnationalism," Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 24 (1995), p. 548. On the theoretical aspects of the connections between globalization and migration/diasporas, see the stimulating analyses in Wang Gungwu, "Migration history: some patterns revisited," and Robin Cohen, "Diasporas, the nation-state, and globalisation," in Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 1-22, 117-144.
24. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989); and Arjun Appadurai, "Global ethnoscapes: notes and queries for a transnational anthropology," in Richard Fox (ed.), Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1991), pp. 191-210.
25. David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989); and Arjun Appadurai, "Global ethnoscapes: notes and queries for a transnational anthropology," in Richard Fox (ed.), Recapturing Anthropology: Working in the Present (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1991), pp. 191-210.
26. Chen Wanfan, "Yingwen jiaoyuzhe yanzhong de zongxiang huiguan" ("Clan associations in the eyes of the English-educated"), in Zhonghui san nian (Three Years of the Singapore Federation of Chinese Clan Associations) (Singapore: Singapore Federation of Chinese Clan Associations, 1989), pp. 50-52.
27. This paper follows Samuel Huntington's definition of institutionalization as "the process by which organizations and procedures acquire value and stability." Quoted in Karen L. Remmer, "Theoretical decay and theoretical development: the resurgence of institutional analysis," World Politics, Vol. 50 (1997), p. 35.
28. The data are drawn from various special convention publications, clan association newsletters and contemporary newspapers. For some relevant information, see also Fang Xiongpu and Xu Zhenli, Haiwai qiaotuan xunzong (In Quest of Overseas Chinese Associations) (Beijing: Zhongguo huaqiao chubanshe, 1995); pp. 265-325; and Li Minghuan, A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations, pp. 386-410.
29. The data are drawn from various special convention publications, clan association newsletters and contemporary newspapers. For some relevant information, see also Fang Xiongpu and Xu Zhenli, Haiwai qiaotuan xunzong (In Quest of Overseas Chinese Associations) (Beijing: Zhongguo huaqiao chubanshe, 1995); pp. 265-325; and Li Minghuan, A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Associations, pp. 386-410.
30. Raphael Pura, "A breed apart: stamina and success mark Fuzhou Chinese diaspora," Asian Wall Street Journal, 8 June 1994.
31. Yuen-fong Woon, "Social change and continuity," p. 337.
32. For a useful analysis of the principles of Chinese kinship, see James L. Watson, "Chinese kinship reconsidered: anthropological perspectives on historical research," The China Quarterly, No. 92 (1982), pp. 589-622.
33. Ling Liong Sik, The Malaysian Chinese towards Vision 2020 (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1995), p. 117.
34. Thomas Tsu Wee Tan, "Political modernisation and traditional Chinese voluntary associations: a Singapore case study," Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1985), pp. 67-79.
35. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Cheng Lim-Keak, Social Change and the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1985); Yao Souchou, "Why Chinese voluntary associations: structure or function?" Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 75-99; Rupert Hodder, Merchant Princes of the East: footnote continued Cultural Delusions, Economic Success and the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), pp. 137-186; and Edgar Wickberg, "Overseas Chinese adaptive organizations, past and present," in Ronald Skeldon (ed.), Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1994), pp. 68-84.
36. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Cheng Lim-Keak, Social Change and the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1985); Yao Souchou, "Why Chinese voluntary associations: structure or function?" Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 75-99; Rupert Hodder, Merchant Princes of the East: footnote continued Cultural Delusions, Economic Success and the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), pp. 137-186; and Edgar Wickberg, "Overseas Chinese adaptive organizations, past and present," in Ronald Skeldon (ed.), Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1994), pp. 68-84.
37. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Cheng Lim-Keak, Social Change and the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1985); Yao Souchou, "Why Chinese voluntary associations: structure or function?" Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 75-99; Rupert Hodder, Merchant Princes of the East: footnote continued Cultural Delusions, Economic Success and the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), pp. 137-186; and Edgar Wickberg, "Overseas Chinese adaptive organizations, past and present," in Ronald Skeldon (ed.), Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1994), pp. 68-84.
38. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Cheng Lim-Keak, Social Change and the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1985); Yao Souchou, "Why Chinese voluntary associations: structure or function?" Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 75-99; Rupert Hodder, Merchant Princes of the East: footnote continued Cultural Delusions, Economic Success and the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), pp. 137-186; and Edgar Wickberg, "Overseas Chinese adaptive organizations, past and present," in Ronald Skeldon (ed.), Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1994), pp. 68-84.
39. Bryna Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation: Regional Networks and Identities in Shanghai, 1853-1937 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996); Cheng Lim-Keak, Social Change and the Chinese in Singapore (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1985); Yao Souchou, "Why Chinese voluntary associations: structure or function?" Journal of the South Seas Society, Vol. 39 (1984), pp. 75-99; Rupert Hodder, Merchant Princes of the East: footnote continued Cultural Delusions, Economic Success and the Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1996), pp. 137-186; and Edgar Wickberg, "Overseas Chinese adaptive organizations, past and present," in Ronald Skeldon (ed.), Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1994), pp. 68-84.
40. Wang Tai Peng, The Origins of Chinese Kongsi (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1995), pp. 109-148; Liao Chiyang, "Zai Nichi kashō no shakai soshiki to sona shōgyō nettowaku" ("Chinese social organisations and trading networks in Japan: Fujian Clan Association of Nagasaki, 1860-1950s"), Tōyō bunka kenkyu kiyo (Bulletin of Studies in Oriental Culture), No. 134 (1997), pp. 109-173. (I am grateful to Miho Goda for help with the Japanese sources quoted in this article.) See also Hong Liu, "Think locally, act regionally: the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry as an institutional nexus of Asian Chinese business networks," paper presented at the international workshop on "Asian Business Networks," National University of Singapore, 31 March-1 April 1998.
41. Wang Tai Peng, The Origins of Chinese Kongsi (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1995), pp. 109-148; Liao Chiyang, "Zai Nichi kashō no shakai soshiki to sona shōgyō nettowaku" ("Chinese social organisations and trading networks in Japan: Fujian Clan Association of Nagasaki, 1860-1950s"), Tōyō bunka kenkyu kiyo (Bulletin of Studies in Oriental Culture), No. 134 (1997), pp. 109-173. (I am grateful to Miho Goda for help with the Japanese sources quoted in this article.) See also Hong Liu, "Think locally, act regionally: the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry as an institutional nexus of Asian Chinese business networks," paper presented at the international workshop on "Asian Business Networks," National University of Singapore, 31 March-1 April 1998.
42. Wang Tai Peng, The Origins of Chinese Kongsi (Petaling Jaya: Pelanduk Publications, 1995), pp. 109-148; Liao Chiyang, "Zai Nichi kashō no shakai soshiki to sona shōgyō nettowaku" ("Chinese social organisations and trading networks in Japan: Fujian Clan Association of Nagasaki, 1860-1950s"), Tōyō bunka kenkyu kiyo (Bulletin of Studies in Oriental Culture), No. 134 (1997), pp. 109-173. (I am grateful to Miho Goda for help with the Japanese sources quoted in this article.) See also Hong Liu, "Think locally, act regionally: the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry as an institutional nexus of Asian Chinese business networks," paper presented at the international workshop on "Asian Business Networks," National University of Singapore, 31 March-1 April 1998.
43. There are a number of important studies highlighting the cross-national nature of pre-1980 Chinese business activities. See, for example, Ruth McVey, "The materialization of the Southeast Asian entrepreneur," in Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asian Program, 1992), pp. 7-34; Christine Dobbin, Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities: Conjoint Communities in the Making of the World-Economy, 1570-1940 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1996); Anthony Reid (ed.), Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese (St Leonards, NSW: Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with Allen and Unwin, 1996); and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds), Ungrounded Empires.
44. There are a number of important studies highlighting the cross-national nature of pre-1980 Chinese business activities. See, for example, Ruth McVey, "The materialization of the Southeast Asian entrepreneur," in Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asian Program, 1992), pp. 7-34; Christine Dobbin, Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities: Conjoint Communities in the Making of the World-Economy, 1570-1940 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1996); Anthony Reid (ed.), Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese (St Leonards, NSW: Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with Allen and Unwin, 1996); and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds), Ungrounded Empires.
45. There are a number of important studies highlighting the cross-national nature of pre-1980 Chinese business activities. See, for example, Ruth McVey, "The materialization of the Southeast Asian entrepreneur," in Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asian Program, 1992), pp. 7-34; Christine Dobbin, Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities: Conjoint Communities in the Making of the World-Economy, 1570-1940 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1996); Anthony Reid (ed.), Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese (St Leonards, NSW: Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with Allen and Unwin, 1996); and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds), Ungrounded Empires.
46. There are a number of important studies highlighting the cross-national nature of pre-1980 Chinese business activities. See, for example, Ruth McVey, "The materialization of the Southeast Asian entrepreneur," in Ruth McVey (ed.), Southeast Asian Capitalists (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asian Program, 1992), pp. 7-34; Christine Dobbin, Asian Entrepreneurial Minorities: Conjoint Communities in the Making of the World-Economy, 1570-1940 (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 1996); Anthony Reid (ed.), Sojourners and Settlers: Histories of Southeast Asia and the Chinese (St Leonards, NSW: Asian Studies Association of Australia in association with Allen and Unwin, 1996); and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini (eds), Ungrounded Empires.
47. Personal interview with Soon Peng Yam. See also Hong Liu, "The Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Singapore-Malaysia economic interactions: a case study of regional interdependence." Paper presented at the international conference, "Chinese Populations in Contemporary Southeast Asian Societies: Regional Interdependence and International Influence," University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 10-12 March 1997.
48. Yuan, No. 3 (1997), pp. 46-48; Sinn, "Xin Xi Guxiang," p. 396.
49. Yuan, No. 3 (1997), pp. 46-48; Sinn, "Xin Xi Guxiang," p. 396.
50. See Chinben, "Chinese organizations and ethnic identity in the Philippines," in Jennifer Cushman and Wang Gungwu (eds.), Changing Identities of the Southeast Asian Chinese since World War II (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1988), pp. 319-334; and Hodder, Merchant Princes, pp. 146-151.
51. See Chinben, "Chinese organizations and ethnic identity in the Philippines," in Jennifer Cushman and Wang Gungwu (eds.), Changing Identities of the Southeast Asian Chinese since World War II (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1988), pp. 319-334; and Hodder, Merchant Princes, pp. 146-151.
52. Rong qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuqing Clans), No. 2 (1989), p. 3.
53. Pierre Bourdieu, "Social space and symbolic power," Sociological Theory, Vol. 7, No. 1 (1989), p. 22.
54. Personal interviews with Tong Djoe; Li Hongjie (ed.), Minji zhuming huaren fengcai lu (Anxi juan) (Profiles of Prominent Fujianese Overseas Chinese (Anxi volume)) (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chubanshe, 1997), pp. 1-7. See also Moebanoe Moera and Eddy Suprapto, "Om Tong, pelobi ulung dan pengusaha serbauntung" ("Mr. Tong, a skillful lobbyist and ultra-successful entrepreneur"), in Kontan: Mingguan Ekonomi and Bisnis (Cash: Economy Business Weekly) Vol. 1, No. 27 (1997), pp. 10, 14-15; and Eiji Oshita, "Tong Djoe: Indonesia's political entrepreneur" [in Japanese], Sports Nippon, 6 May-11 June 1993, parts 1-35.
55. Personal interviews with Tong Djoe; Li Hongjie (ed.), Minji zhuming huaren fengcai lu (Anxi juan) (Profiles of Prominent Fujianese Overseas Chinese (Anxi volume)) (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chubanshe, 1997), pp. 1-7. See also Moebanoe Moera and Eddy Suprapto, "Om Tong, pelobi ulung dan pengusaha serbauntung" ("Mr. Tong, a skillful lobbyist and ultra-successful entrepreneur"), in Kontan: Mingguan Ekonomi and Bisnis (Cash: Economy Business Weekly) Vol. 1, No. 27 (1997), pp. 10, 14-15; and Eiji Oshita, "Tong Djoe: Indonesia's political entrepreneur" [in Japanese], Sports Nippon, 6 May-11 June 1993, parts 1-35.
56. Personal interviews with Tong Djoe; Li Hongjie (ed.), Minji zhuming huaren fengcai lu (Anxi juan) (Profiles of Prominent Fujianese Overseas Chinese (Anxi volume)) (Fuzhou: Fujian renmin chubanshe, 1997), pp. 1-7. See also Moebanoe Moera and Eddy Suprapto, "Om Tong, pelobi ulung dan pengusaha serbauntung" ("Mr. Tong, a skillful lobbyist and ultra-successful entrepreneur"), in Kontan: Mingguan Ekonomi and Bisnis (Cash: Economy Business Weekly) Vol. 1, No. 27 (1997), pp. 10, 14-15; and Eiji Oshita, "Tong Djoe: Indonesia's political entrepreneur" [in Japanese], Sports Nippon, 6 May-11 June 1993, parts 1-35.
57. Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 7 September 1992.
58. Rong Qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuqing Clans), No. 19 (1994), pp. 20-21; Guoji chaoxu (TIC [Teochew International Convention] Bulletin), Nos. 18/19 (1996), pp. 6-7.
59. Rong Qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuqing Clans), No. 19 (1994), pp. 20-21; Guoji chaoxu (TIC [Teochew International Convention] Bulletin), Nos. 18/19 (1996), pp. 6-7.
60. James Clifford, "Diasporas," Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (1994), p. 306.
61. Guoji chaoxu (TIC Bulletin), Nos. 18/19 (1996), p. 6; Zhao Heman "Shijie Guangxi tongxianghui shilie" ("A short history of the World Guangxi Association"), Dongnanya zhonge (All-around Southeast Asia), No. 3 (1996), pp. 31-36.
62. Guoji chaoxu (TIC Bulletin), Nos. 18/19 (1996), p. 6; Zhao Heman "Shijie Guangxi tongxianghui shilie" ("A short history of the World Guangxi Association"), Dongnanya zhonge (All-around Southeast Asia), No. 3 (1996), pp. 31-36.
63. From "Guest People" to Citizens: The Hakka Exhibition Brochure (Singapore, 1996), p. 1.
64. Sunday Times (Singapore), 17 April 1994.
65. John Kao, "The worldwide web of Chinese business," Harvard Business Review, March/April 1993, pp. 24-36. See also Yu Chukun, How Overseas Chinese Have Changed China [in Japanese] (Tokyo: The Press of PHP Institute, 1993), pp. 218-220.
66. John Kao, "The worldwide web of Chinese business," Harvard Business Review, March/April 1993, pp. 24-36. See also Yu Chukun, How Overseas Chinese Have Changed China [in Japanese] (Tokyo: The Press of PHP Institute, 1993), pp. 218-220.
67. Personal interview with Tong Keng-Meng.
68. Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations; Arif Dirlik, "Critical reflections on 'Chinese capitalism' as paradigm," Identities, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1997), pp. 303-330.
69. Wang Gungwu (ed.), Global History and Migrations; Arif Dirlik, "Critical reflections on 'Chinese capitalism' as paradigm," Identities, Vol. 3, No. 3 (1997), pp. 303-330.
70. Kao, "The worldwide web," p. 32; "Beijing: fickle suitor of Overseas Chinese," Nikkei Weekly, 5 June 1995, pp. 20-21; Friedrich Wu and Sin Yue Duk, "(Overseas) China, Inc.," International Economy, January/February 1995, p. 33.
71. Kao, "The worldwide web," p. 32; "Beijing: fickle suitor of Overseas Chinese," Nikkei Weekly, 5 June 1995, pp. 20-21; Friedrich Wu and Sin Yue Duk, "(Overseas) China, Inc.," International Economy, January/February 1995, p. 33.
72. Kao, "The worldwide web," p. 32; "Beijing: fickle suitor of Overseas Chinese," Nikkei Weekly, 5 June 1995, pp. 20-21; Friedrich Wu and Sin Yue Duk, "(Overseas) China, Inc.," International Economy, January/February 1995, p. 33.
73. Dan Biers, "Staying the course: mainland upsets don't faze overseas-Chinese investors," Asian Wall Street Journal, 19 July 1995, p. 11; Xie Liangjun, "Role of Overseas Chinese vital for nation's economy," China Daily, 20 December 1996.
74. Dan Biers, "Staying the course: mainland upsets don't faze overseas-Chinese investors," Asian Wall Street Journal, 19 July 1995, p. 11; Xie Liangjun, "Role of Overseas Chinese vital for nation's economy," China Daily, 20 December 1996.
75. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), (Singapore) 15 February 1998.
76. Straits Times, 18 January and 18 February 1998; Yazhou zhoukan (Asia Weekly), (Hong Kong) 19-25 January 1998, pp. 62-63.
77. Straits Times, 18 January and 18 February 1998; Yazhou zhoukan (Asia Weekly), (Hong Kong) 19-25 January 1998, pp. 62-63.
78. China Daily, 20 December 1996.
79. Nanyang siang pau (Nanyang Commercial Daily), (Kuala Lumpur) 29 August 1997.
80. Yazhou zhoukan (Asia Weekly), 26 May 1997, p. 51.
81. Suisheng Zhao, "Economic interdependence and political divergence: the emerging pattern of relations across the Taiwan Straits," Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 6, No. 15 (1997), p. 184. On the impact of the Beijing-Taipei competition on Overseas Chinese associations, see Li Minghuan, A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Association, pp. 90-100.
82. Suisheng Zhao, "Economic interdependence and political divergence: the emerging pattern of relations across the Taiwan Straits," Journal of Contemporary China, Vol. 6, No. 15 (1997), p. 184. On the impact of the Beijing-Taipei competition on Overseas Chinese associations, see Li Minghuan, A Study on Contemporary Overseas Chinese Association, pp. 90-100.
83. Wenhuibao, (Hong Kong) 25 May 1997.
84. Wang Mingming, Shehui renleixue yu Zhongguo yanjiu (Social Anthropology and Sinological Studies) (Beijing: San nian shudian, 1997), pp. 300-307; Yuen-fong Woon, "Social change and continuity."
85. Wang Mingming, Shehui renleixue yu Zhongguo yanjiu (Social Anthropology and Sinological Studies) (Beijing: San nian shudian, 1997), pp. 300-307; Yuen-fong Woon, "Social change and continuity."
86. This phrase is drawn from the title of an essay from a 1995 issue of Fujian duiwai maoyi (Fujian Foreign Economic Relations and Trade).
87. On the changing policies of South-East Asian governments towards the ethnic Chinese, see Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. It was reported that only about 1,000 of Malaysia's 5,762 shetuan were active, with the rest in the "state of hibernation" (Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 14 April 1996). The similar downturn in Singapore shetuan's domestic influence during the 1970s and 1980s is mentioned in Cheng Lim Keak, Social Change, and Thomas Tsu Wee Tan, "Political modernisation."
88. On the changing policies of South-East Asian governments towards the ethnic Chinese, see Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. It was reported that only about 1,000 of Malaysia's 5,762 shetuan were active, with the rest in the "state of hibernation" (Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 14 April 1996). The similar downturn in Singapore shetuan's domestic influence during the 1970s and 1980s is mentioned in Cheng Lim Keak, Social Change, and Thomas Tsu Wee Tan, "Political modernisation."
89. On the changing policies of South-East Asian governments towards the ethnic Chinese, see Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. It was reported that only about 1,000 of Malaysia's 5,762 shetuan were active, with the rest in the "state of hibernation" (Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 14 April 1996). The similar downturn in Singapore shetuan's domestic influence during the 1970s and 1980s is mentioned in Cheng Lim Keak, Social Change, and Thomas Tsu Wee Tan, "Political modernisation."
90. On the changing policies of South-East Asian governments towards the ethnic Chinese, see Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Ethnic Chinese as Southeast Asians. It was reported that only about 1,000 of Malaysia's 5,762 shetuan were active, with the rest in the "state of hibernation" (Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 14 April 1996). The similar downturn in Singapore shetuan's domestic influence during the 1970s and 1980s is mentioned in Cheng Lim Keak, Social Change, and Thomas Tsu Wee Tan, "Political modernisation."
91. Second World Chinese Entrepreneurs Convention (Hong Kong: The Chinese General Chamber of Commerce, 1993), p. 88.
92. Cai Liangqian, "Dierjie shijie Fujian tongxiang kenqin dahui" ("The second Fujianese world reunion"), Fujian xinwen (Fujian News), No. 7 (1996), p. 3.
93. Jamie Mackie, "Overseas Chinese entrepreneurship," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, Vol. 6 (1992), pp. 41-64; and Gary Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1996). For a useful recent discussion, see Tong Chee Kiong and Yong Pit Kee, "Guanxi bases, Xinyong and Chinese business networks," British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 49, No. 1 (1998), pp. 75-96.
94. Jamie Mackie, "Overseas Chinese entrepreneurship," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, Vol. 6 (1992), pp. 41-64; and Gary Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1996). For a useful recent discussion, see Tong Chee Kiong and Yong Pit Kee, "Guanxi bases, Xinyong and Chinese business networks," British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 49, No. 1 (1998), pp. 75-96.
95. Jamie Mackie, "Overseas Chinese entrepreneurship," Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, Vol. 6 (1992), pp. 41-64; and Gary Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1996). For a useful recent discussion, see Tong Chee Kiong and Yong Pit Kee, "Guanxi bases, Xinyong and Chinese business networks," British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 49, No. 1 (1998), pp. 75-96.
96. Rong qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuqing Clans), No. 22 (1994), p. 6.
97. Peter Drucker, "The new superpower: the Overseas Chinese," Asian Wall Street Journal, 21 December 1994, p. 8.
98. Mayfair Yang, Gifts, Favors, and Banquets, p. 111.
99. Ambrose Yeo-chi King, "Kuan-hsi and network building: a sociological interpretation," in Tu Wei-ming, (ed.), The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), p. 116.
100. Lin Tongchun, The Man Crossing the Bridge: An Autobiography of an Overseas Chinese through the Turbulent Years [in Japanese] (Kobe: Epic Press, 1997), pp. 147, 199. Personal interview with Lin Tongchun in Kobe.
101. Shoujie shijie Fujian tongxiang kengqing dahui shilu (Records of the First World Fukienese Associations' Convention) (Los Angeles: Southern-California Fukienese Association, 1994), p. 9.
102. Guoji Chaoxu (TIC Bulletin), Nos. 18/19 (1996), p. 6
103. Xinjiapo Fuqing huiguan sanqing jinian tekan (A Special Souvenir Publication for the Triple Celebrations of the Singapore Futsing [Fuqing] Association) (Singapore: Futsing Association, 1995), p. 3. In a personal interview with this author, Ling Lee Hua, president of the Singapore Fuzhou Association and a board member of Malaysia's Hock Hua Bank, also concedes that it is much easier to trust and do business with fellow county people.
104. First World Chinese Entrepreneurs Convention: A Global Network (Singapore: Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 1991), p. 19.
105. Business Times (Singapore), 8 December 1995; Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 12 August 1997. The site's address is http//wcbn.com.sg
106. Business Times (Singapore), 8 December 1995; Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 12 August 1997. The site's address is http//wcbn.com.sg
107. Rong qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuging Clans) No. 4 (1990), pp. 2-18; ibid. No. 29 (1996), pp. 4-7.
108. Rong qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuging Clans) No. 4 (1990), pp. 2-18; ibid. No. 29 (1996), pp. 4-7.
109. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 22 November 1993.
110. Personal interview with Tong Keng-Meng.
111. Diyijie shijie Fuzhou shiyi tongxiang dahui (First International Foochow Conference-Republic of Singapore and Singapore Foochow [Fuzhou] Association 80th Anniversary) (Singapore: Foochow Association, 1990), p. 8.
112. Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 8 October 1996.
113. Zhao Heman, "A short history of the World Guangxi Association," p. 34.
114. Xinjiapo Anxi huiguan chengli qishi zhounian ji diyijie shijie Anxi xiangqing lianyihui jinian tekan (Singapore Ann Kway [Anxi] Association 70th Anniversary in Conjunction with the World Ann Kway Convention) (Singapore: Singapore Anxi Clan Association, 1994), pp. 26, 51-52.
115. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 7 December 1992.
116. Qi Lian, "Zhongqin yimai, xiangyi qing nong" ("Same kinship, strong fellow feelings"), Huaren yuekan (Life Overseas), No. 2 (1995), pp. 21-24.
117. Tong xu (Newsletter of the Singapore Tung Ann District Guild), No. 13 (1996), p. 4; Lianhe zaobao, (United Morning News), 21 November 1996; and personal interview with Casey Kin-Chuan Lee.
118. Tong xu (Newsletter of the Singapore Tung Ann District Guild), No. 13 (1996), p. 4; Lianhe zaobao, (United Morning News), 21 November 1996; and personal interview with Casey Kin-Chuan Lee.
119. Lianhe wanbao (United Evening News), 6 November 1994; and Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News) 5 December 1996.
120. Lianhe wanbao (United Evening News), 6 November 1994; and Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News) 5 December 1996.
121. Cai Liangqian, "The second Fujianese world reunion," pp. 4-5.
122. Anxi xiangxu (Hometown News from Anxi), 6 April 1994; Tong Djoc, "Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Third Anxi International Convention, Anxi, 15 November 1997" (typescript).
123. Anxi xiangxu (Hometown News from Anxi), 6 April 1994; Tong Djoc, "Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Third Anxi International Convention, Anxi, 15 November 1997" (typescript).
124. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 20, 24 November 1997.
125. A Special Souvenir Publication for the Triple Celebrations of the Singapore Futsing [Fuqing] Association, p. 5.
126. Appadurai, "Global ethnoscapes," p. 193.
127. Sinchew jitpoh (Singapore Daily), 1 January 1996.
128. Seth Faison, "Riady's China technique: local ties," International Herald Tribune, 21 October 1996; Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 27 November 1992 and 27 January 1993. On the connections between Overseas Chinese capital and south China, see Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy, The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China: An Emerging Economic Synergy (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996).
129. Seth Faison, "Riady's China technique: local ties," International Herald Tribune, 21 October 1996; Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 27 November 1992 and 27 January 1993. On the connections between Overseas Chinese capital and south China, see Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy, The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China: An Emerging Economic Synergy (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996).
130. Seth Faison, "Riady's China technique: local ties," International Herald Tribune, 21 October 1996; Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 27 November 1992 and 27 January 1993. On the connections between Overseas Chinese capital and south China, see Constance Lever-Tracy, David Ip and Noel Tracy, The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China: An Emerging Economic Synergy (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996).
131. Aihwa Ong, "Chinese modernities: narratives of nation and of capitalism;" and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini, "Toward a cultural politics of diaspora and transnationalism," in Ong and Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires, pp. 171-202, 323-332.
132. Aihwa Ong, "Chinese modernities: narratives of nation and of capitalism;" and Aihwa Ong and Donald Nonini, "Toward a cultural politics of diaspora and transnationalism," in Ong and Nonini (eds.), Ungrounded Empires, pp. 171-202, 323-332.
133. Kearney, "The local and the global," p. 557.
134. Nicole Constable, "Introduction: what does it mean to be Hakka?" in Nicole Constable (ed.), Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), p. 33.
135. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 22 November 1987.
136. Rong qing (Newsletter of the International Federation of Fuqing Clans), No. 4(1990), p. 2.
137. Wang Gungwu, "Sojourning: the Chinese experience in Southeast Asia," in Anthony Reid (ed.), Sojourners and Settlers, pp. 1-14.
138. See for example the detailed discussions by clan representatives from South-East Asia and North America in Disijie guoji Chaotuan lianyihui baogaoshu (Proceedings of the Fourth Teochew [Chaozhou] International Convention) (Singapore: Singapore Teochew Poit Ip Huay Kuan, 1987); and Records of the First World Fukienese Associations Convention.
139. See for example the detailed discussions by clan representatives from South-East Asia and North America in Disijie guoji Chaotuan lianyihui baogaoshu (Proceedings of the Fourth Teochew [Chaozhou] International Convention) (Singapore: Singapore Teochew Poit Ip Huay Kuan, 1987); and Records of the First World Fukienese Associations Convention.
140. Cited in Ling Liong Sik, The Malaysian Chinese, towards Vision 2020, p. 27; Straits Times, (Singapore) 13 May 1993.
141. Cited in Ling Liong Sik, The Malaysian Chinese, towards Vision 2020, p. 27; Straits Times, (Singapore) 13 May 1993.
142. Theresa Chong Carino, "The ethnic Chinese, the Philippine economy and China," in Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Southeast Asian Chinese and China: The Politico-Economic Dimension (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1995), p. 226.
143. Straits Times, 27 January 1995; see also Barry Wain, "Myths of the Overseas Chinese," Asian Wall Street Journal, 10-11 December 1993; and Asian Wall Street Journal, 6 June 1997.
144. Straits Times, 27 January 1995; see also Barry Wain, "Myths of the Overseas Chinese," Asian Wall Street Journal, 10-11 December 1993; and Asian Wall Street Journal, 6 June 1997.
145. Straits Times, 27 January 1995; see also Barry Wain, "Myths of the Overseas Chinese," Asian Wall Street Journal, 10-11 December 1993; and Asian Wall Street Journal, 6 June 1997.
146. Tempo, (Jakarta) 27 November 1993, pp. 21-29; and Huaren yuekan (Life Overseas), No. 11 (1995), p. 19.
147. Tempo, (Jakarta) 27 November 1993, pp. 21-29; and Huaren yuekan (Life Overseas), No. 11 (1995), p. 19.
148. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 23 November 1993. For a detailed discussion of the concept of "Greater China" and its implications, see David Shambaugh (ed.), Greater China: The Next Superpower? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), especially Wang Gungwu's essay, "Greater China and the Chinese overseas," pp. 274-296.
149. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 23 November 1993. For a detailed discussion of the concept of "Greater China" and its implications, see David Shambaugh (ed.), Greater China: The Next Superpower? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), especially Wang Gungwu's essay, "Greater China and the Chinese overseas," pp. 274-296.
150. Lianhe zaobao (United Morning News), 23 November 1993. For a detailed discussion of the concept of "Greater China" and its implications, see David Shambaugh (ed.), Greater China: The Next Superpower? (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), especially Wang Gungwu's essay, "Greater China and the Chinese overseas," pp. 274-296.
151. Lianhe zaobao, 7 August 1994.
152. Lianhe zaobao, 16 May 1997.
153. Lianhe zaobao, 5 December 1995.
154. Linda Low, "The Overseas Chinese connection: an ASEAN perspective," Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 23, No. 2 (1995), pp. 89-119; and Lever-Tracy, Ip and Tracy, The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China.
155. Linda Low, "The Overseas Chinese connection: an ASEAN perspective," Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 23, No. 2 (1995), pp. 89-119; and Lever-Tracy, Ip and Tracy, The Chinese Diaspora and Mainland China.
156. There are some marked generational differences among the attitudes of Chinese transnational entrepreneurs toward charitable and ethnicity-based community works. According to Ling Lee Hua, his father was willing to spend a large amount of money on Chinese education while himself leading a simple life. Ling himself has been supportive of local Chinese cultural and welfare works while taking recreational activities to enjoy life. The younger generation is generally unwilling to involve itself in Chinese community affairs, although they spend a great deal of money on personal recreation (personal interview with Ling Lee Hua). Tong Djoe, who served as the honorary chairman of the International Conference on Confucianism and World Civilisations (Singapore, June 1997) and helped the organizer with fund-raising, also related to me that the younger Overseas Chinese tycoons are generally reluctant to contribute. 95. Ng Wing Chung, "Urban Chinese social organisation," p. 470.
157. See for example, Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks; East Asia Analytical Unit, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia (Canberra: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995); Roger Pyatt, "Business networks and dyad study: theory and practice in Southeast Asia," Journal of Far Eastern Business, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1995), pp. 1-14; Jomo K. S. et al. Southeast Asia's Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 23-26. See also K. S. Cook and J. M. Whitmeyer, "Two approaches to social structure: exchange theory and network analysis," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), pp. 109-127.
158. See for example, Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks; East Asia Analytical Unit, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia (Canberra: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995); Roger Pyatt, "Business networks and dyad study: theory and practice in Southeast Asia," Journal of Far Eastern Business, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1995), pp. 1-14; Jomo K. S. et al. Southeast Asia's Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 23-26. See also K. S. Cook and J. M. Whitmeyer, "Two approaches to social structure: exchange theory and network analysis," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), pp. 109-127.
159. See for example, Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks; East Asia Analytical Unit, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia (Canberra: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995); Roger Pyatt, "Business networks and dyad study: theory and practice in Southeast Asia," Journal of Far Eastern Business, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1995), pp. 1-14; Jomo K. S. et al. Southeast Asia's Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 23-26. See also K. S. Cook and J. M. Whitmeyer, "Two approaches to social structure: exchange theory and network analysis," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), pp. 109-127.
160. See for example, Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks; East Asia Analytical Unit, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia (Canberra: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995); Roger Pyatt, "Business networks and dyad study: theory and practice in Southeast Asia," Journal of Far Eastern Business, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1995), pp. 1-14; Jomo K. S. et al. Southeast Asia's Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 23-26. See also K. S. Cook and J. M. Whitmeyer, "Two approaches to social structure: exchange theory and network analysis," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), pp. 109-127.
161. See for example, Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks; East Asia Analytical Unit, Overseas Chinese Business Networks in Asia (Canberra: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 1995); Roger Pyatt, "Business networks and dyad study: theory and practice in Southeast Asia," Journal of Far Eastern Business, Vol. 1, No. 4 (1995), pp. 1-14; Jomo K. S. et al. Southeast Asia's Misunderstood Miracle: Industrial Policy and Economic Development in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia (Boulder, CO, and Oxford: Westview Press, 1997), pp. 23-26. See also K. S. Cook and J. M. Whitmeyer, "Two approaches to social structure: exchange theory and network analysis," Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 18 (1992), pp. 109-127.
162. Edward Chen and Gary Hamilton, "Introduction: business groups and economic development," in Hamilton (ed.), Asian Business Networks, p. 6.
163. Gary Hamilton, "Nineteenth century Chinese merchant associations: conspiracy or combination," Ching-Shih Wen-ti (Problems in the Qing History), Vol. 3, No. 8 (1977), pp. 50-71; Hamilton, "competition and organization," pp. 15-17; Marco Orru, Nicole W. Biggart, and Gary G. Hamilton, The Economic Organization of East Asian Capitalism (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), pp. 51-53; and Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation.
164. Gary Hamilton, "Nineteenth century Chinese merchant associations: conspiracy or combination," Ching-Shih Wen-ti (Problems in the Qing History), Vol. 3, No. 8 (1977), pp. 50-71; Hamilton, "competition and organization," pp. 15-17; Marco Orru, Nicole W. Biggart, and Gary G. Hamilton, The Economic Organization of East Asian Capitalism (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), pp. 51-53; and Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation.
165. Gary Hamilton, "Nineteenth century Chinese merchant associations: conspiracy or combination," Ching-Shih Wen-ti (Problems in the Qing History), Vol. 3, No. 8 (1977), pp. 50-71; Hamilton, "competition and organization," pp. 15-17; Marco Orru, Nicole W. Biggart, and Gary G. Hamilton, The Economic Organization of East Asian Capitalism (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), pp. 51-53; and Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation.
166. Gary Hamilton, "Nineteenth century Chinese merchant associations: conspiracy or combination," Ching-Shih Wen-ti (Problems in the Qing History), Vol. 3, No. 8 (1977), pp. 50-71; Hamilton, "competition and organization," pp. 15-17; Marco Orru, Nicole W. Biggart, and Gary G. Hamilton, The Economic Organization of East Asian Capitalism (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), pp. 51-53; and Goodman, Native Place, City, and Nation.
167. Hawes and Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy;" Remmer, "Theoretical decay."
168. Hawes and Liu, "Explaining the dynamics of the Southeast Asian political economy;" Remmer, "Theoretical decay."
169. Chen Ta, Emigrant Communities in South China: A Study of Overseas Migration and its Influence on Standards of Living and Social Change (New York: AMS Press, 1978); and Leo Douw and P. Post (eds.), South China: State, Culture and Social Change during the 20th Century (Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996). For an alternative interpretation, see Hong Liu, "Bridges across the seas: Chinese social organizations in South-East Asia and their links with qiaoxing," paper presented at the international workshop, "Chinese Transnationalism: Cultural and Economic Dimensions," Noordwijkcrhout, The Netherlands, 25-26 June 1998.
170. Chen Ta, Emigrant Communities in South China: A Study of Overseas Migration and its Influence on Standards of Living and Social Change (New York: AMS Press, 1978); and Leo Douw and P. Post (eds.), South China: State, Culture and Social Change during the 20th Century (Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996). For an alternative interpretation, see Hong Liu, "Bridges across the seas: Chinese social organizations in South-East Asia and their links with qiaoxing," paper presented at the international workshop, "Chinese Transnationalism: Cultural and Economic Dimensions," Noordwijkcrhout, The Netherlands, 25-26 June 1998.
171. Chen Ta, Emigrant Communities in South China: A Study of Overseas Migration and its Influence on Standards of Living and Social Change (New York: AMS Press, 1978); and Leo Douw and P. Post (eds.), South China: State, Culture and Social Change during the 20th Century (Amsterdam: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1996). For an alternative interpretation, see Hong Liu, "Bridges across the seas: Chinese social organizations in South-East Asia and their links with qiaoxing," paper presented at the international workshop, "Chinese Transnationalism: Cultural and Economic Dimensions," Noordwijkcrhout, The Netherlands, 25-26 June 1998.
172. Woon Yuen-fong, "International links and the socioeconomic development of rural China: an emigrant community in Guangdong," Modern China, Vol. 16, No. 2 (1990), pp. 139-172. Woon Yuen-fong's "Social change and continuity" describes the collective pressure exerted by the World Guan Clan Association and the World Longgang Association as more effective than individual efforts from abroad in bringing about lineage revival in Kaiping, Guangdong.
173. Wang Gungwu, "Migration history," and Cohen, "Diasporas."
174. Wang Gungwu, "Migration history," and Cohen, "Diasporas."
175. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 259.
176. Appadurai, "Global ethnoscapes," and Kearney, "The local and the global."
177. Appadurai, "Global ethnoscapes," and Kearney, "The local and the global."