Political instability and economic performance: evidence from revolutionary Mexico

World Politics

Volumn 51, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 99-143

  Haber, Stephen ^a   Razo, Armando ^a  

^a NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC GROWTH; POLITICAL ECONOMY; POLITICAL INSTABILITY; PRODUCTIVITY;

MEXICO;

EID: 0031786428     PISSN: 00438871     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0043887100007802     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Following Alexander George, we employ revolutionary Mexico as a "disciplined-configurative" case study, whose purpose is to evaluate and build general theories. For a discussion of the use of single historical cases in theory building, see Alexander L. George, "Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured, Focused Comparison," in Paul Gordon Lauren, ed., Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979). In general, there is no agreement on appropriate definitions of revolutions and political instability. Scholars such as Skocpol have argued that there are fundamental differences between political and social revolutions. See Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4-5. This paper provides an analytical framework with consistent definitions of these terms for systematic studies of the relationship between instability and growth. Our point of departure is the idea that the transformation of institutions in most societies is endogenized within the existing political system. When conflict can no longer be mediated peacefully and without regime change, we have conditions, to be made explicit below, that may lead to instability and revolutions.
2. Following Alexander George, we employ revolutionary Mexico as a "disciplined-configurative" case study, whose purpose is to evaluate and build general theories. For a discussion of the use of single historical cases in theory building, see Alexander L. George, "Case Studies and Theory Development: The Method of Structured, Focused Comparison," in Paul Gordon Lauren, ed., Diplomacy: New Approaches in History, Theory, and Policy (New York: Free Press, 1979). In general, there is no agreement on appropriate definitions of revolutions and political instability. Scholars such as Skocpol have argued that there are fundamental differences between political and social revolutions. See Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 4-5. This paper provides an analytical framework with consistent definitions of these terms for systematic studies of the relationship between instability and growth. Our point of departure is the idea that the transformation of institutions in most societies is endogenized within the existing political system. When conflict can no longer be mediated peacefully and without regime change, we have conditions, to be made explicit below, that may lead to instability and revolutions.
3. Our data sets include information from virtually all of the extant mechanized manufacturing industries in Mexico during the period under study, including the steel, cement, tobacco products, paper, beer brewing, cotton and wool textile, and soap and glycerin industries. Because the data sets pertaining to Mexico's largest and most geographically dispersed manufacturing industry - cotton textiles -are particularly detailed, we focus much of our discussion on the econometric analysis of that industry.
4. See, for example, John Dunne, Modern Revolutions: An Introduction to the Analysis of a Political Phenomenon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 3; Skocpol (fn. 1), 175-205, 218-29, 265-74; Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon, 1967), 40-110.
5. See, for example, John Dunne, Modern Revolutions: An Introduction to the Analysis of a Political Phenomenon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), 3; Skocpol (fn. 1), 175-205, 218-29, 265-74; Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon, 1967), 40-110.
6. These studies also tend to select cases on the dependent variable, limiting their ability to explain the causes of revolutions. See Barbara Geddes, "How the Cases You Choose Affect the Answers You Get: Selection Bias in Comparative Politics," in James A. Stimson, ed., Political Analysis: An Annual Publication of the Methodology Section of the American Political Science Association, vol. 2 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).
7. Samuel Amaral and Leandro Prados de la Escosura, eds., La Independencia Latino Americana: Consecuencias Económicas (The economic consequences of Latin American independence) (Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1993).
8. See, for example, John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Poverty, the Coup Trap, and the Seizure of Executive Power," World Politics 42 (January 1990); Alberto Alesina et al., "Political Stability and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Growth 1 (June 1996); Robert J. Barro, "Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries," Quarterly Journal of Economics (May 1991); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "The Seizure of Executive Power and Economic Growth: Some Additional Evidence," in Alex Cukierman, Zvi Hercowitz, and Leonardo Leiderman, eds., Political Economy, Growth, and Business Cycles (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992).
9. See, for example, John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Poverty, the Coup Trap, and the Seizure of Executive Power," World Politics 42 (January 1990); Alberto Alesina et al., "Political Stability and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Growth 1 (June 1996); Robert J. Barro, "Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries," Quarterly Journal of Economics (May 1991); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "The Seizure of Executive Power and Economic Growth: Some Additional Evidence," in Alex Cukierman, Zvi Hercowitz, and Leonardo Leiderman, eds., Political Economy, Growth, and Business Cycles (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992).
10. See, for example, John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Poverty, the Coup Trap, and the Seizure of Executive Power," World Politics 42 (January 1990); Alberto Alesina et al., "Political Stability and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Growth 1 (June 1996); Robert J. Barro, "Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries," Quarterly Journal of Economics (May 1991); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "The Seizure of Executive Power and Economic Growth: Some Additional Evidence," in Alex Cukierman, Zvi Hercowitz, and Leonardo Leiderman, eds., Political Economy, Growth, and Business Cycles (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992).
11. See, for example, John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "Poverty, the Coup Trap, and the Seizure of Executive Power," World Politics 42 (January 1990); Alberto Alesina et al., "Political Stability and Economic Growth," Journal of Economic Growth 1 (June 1996); Robert J. Barro, "Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries," Quarterly Journal of Economics (May 1991); John B. Londregan and Keith T. Poole, "The Seizure of Executive Power and Economic Growth: Some Additional Evidence," in Alex Cukierman, Zvi Hercowitz, and Leonardo Leiderman, eds., Political Economy, Growth, and Business Cycles (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992).
12. Ross Levine and David Renelt, "A Sensitivity Analysis of Cross-Country Growth Regressions," American Economic Review 82 (September 1992), 943.
13. Alesina et al. (fn. 6), 191-92.
14. Ibid., 190; Barro (fn. 6), 432. Londregan and Poole note that it may not be political instability that gives rise to slow rates of growth, as much as it is the presence of unconstitutional rulers. But the causality issue is still not resolved, as it is generally the case that unconstitutional rulers often come to power in times of political instability. See Londregan and Poole (fn. 6, 1992). Some political scientists, while noting an unclear link between instability and growth, have argued in the opposite direction that growth produces instability through factors that increase social frustration at a faster rate than the rate of the increase in material well-being. See Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1968), 49-59.
15. Levine and Renelt (fn. 7), 943.
16. Barro, for example, employs the number of revolutions and coups per year and the number of political assassinations per million population as measures of instability, and then goes on to "interpret [these] variables as adverse influences on property rights." See Barro (fn. 6), 432. Other investigators have tried to refine these measures. See Alesina et al. (fn. 6).
17. Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 1; Douglass C. North and Barry R. Weingast, "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth Century England," Journal of Economic History 44 (December 1989), 808. Leonid Hurwicz, "Toward a Framework for Analyzing Institutions and Institutional Change," in Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis, and Bo Gustafsson, eds., Markets and Democracy: Participation, Accountability, and Efficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Avner Greif, "Microtheory and Recent Developments in the Study of Economic Institutions through Economic History," in David M. Kreps and Kenneth F. Wallis, eds., Advances in Economic Theory, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
18. Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 1; Douglass C. North and Barry R. Weingast, "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth Century England," Journal of Economic History 44 (December 1989), 808. Leonid Hurwicz, "Toward a Framework for Analyzing Institutions and Institutional Change," in Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis, and Bo Gustafsson, eds., Markets and Democracy: Participation, Accountability, and Efficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Avner Greif, "Microtheory and Recent Developments in the Study of Economic Institutions through Economic History," in David M. Kreps and Kenneth F. Wallis, eds., Advances in Economic Theory, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
19. Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 1; Douglass C. North and Barry R. Weingast, "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth Century England," Journal of Economic History 44 (December 1989), 808. Leonid Hurwicz, "Toward a Framework for Analyzing Institutions and Institutional Change," in Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis, and Bo Gustafsson, eds., Markets and Democracy: Participation, Accountability, and Efficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Avner Greif, "Microtheory and Recent Developments in the Study of Economic Institutions through Economic History," in David M. Kreps and Kenneth F. Wallis, eds., Advances in Economic Theory, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
20. Douglass C. North, Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), chap. 1; Douglass C. North and Barry R. Weingast, "Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth Century England," Journal of Economic History 44 (December 1989), 808. Leonid Hurwicz, "Toward a Framework for Analyzing Institutions and Institutional Change," in Samuel Bowles, Herbert Gintis, and Bo Gustafsson, eds., Markets and Democracy: Participation, Accountability, and Efficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Avner Greif, "Microtheory and Recent Developments in the Study of Economic Institutions through Economic History," in David M. Kreps and Kenneth F. Wallis, eds., Advances in Economic Theory, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
21. See, for example, Lee J. Alston, Thráinn Eggertsson, and Douglass C. North, eds., Empirical Studies in Institutional Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
22. Jean Laurent Rosenthal, The Fruits of Revolution: Property Rights, Litigation, and French Agriculture, 1700-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); North and Weingast (fn. 12). For a critique of North and Weingast, see Gregory Clark, "The Political Foundations of Modern Economic Growth: England, 1540-1800," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (Spring 1996).
23. Jean Laurent Rosenthal, The Fruits of Revolution: Property Rights, Litigation, and French Agriculture, 1700-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); North and Weingast (fn. 12). For a critique of North and Weingast, see Gregory Clark, "The Political Foundations of Modern Economic Growth: England, 1540-1800," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 26 (Spring 1996).
24. Informal institutions, such as social norms and customs, although created outside of the political system, can sometimes be as important as formal institutions if the formal political system alone does not preclude them.
25. This is only a simplifying assumption that facilitates the analysis. One can incorporate international aspects by including foreign elements in the set of agents operating under a particular system. We can also include other international factors through exogenous shocks, described below under political instability, such as the support of a foreign government to a particular faction fighting for a regime change.
26. Our framework is not exclusive of rules - for example, constitutional restraints on the executive branch - that regulate a government after its selection. These could be included under the second group of rules where the constituents may agree to be governed by a government if the latter conforms to an agreed-upon set of rules (a constitution). That is, the government - if we assume it has its own objectives - can be one of the agents whose actions are being mediated through the political system, meaning, that the political system provides rules for the interaction (and permissible behavior) of government and society. Our distinction between a political system and government is similar to the conventional distinction between regimes and governments. However, we prefer the term political system because it reflects the ongoing interaction of its elements as opposed to the static definition of regime as a form of government.
27. Self-enforcement implies only that there are no incentives to deviate, not that everyone is satisfied with the existing political system. It can occur, for example, under two extreme sets of political conditions: (1) all agents, free to make their own decisions, find it advantageous to sustain the system (that is, cooperation is a Nash equilibrium in a game where the different players agree on the system that governs them); or (2) the government, possessing an effective enforcement technology, may impose severe sanctions on players who deviate from the rules (as in a dictatorship). Notice that this is not a game that defines static rules but rather one where agents agree on how to mediate their conflicting views in the present and future periods. Since this is essentially a repeated game, we also employ the term "stable" in a dynamic sense, meaning that the political system is in a steady state of "cooperation" such that small deviations (brought about by internal or external shocks to the system) do not affect its long-run equilibrium. Thus, we will use the terms "stable political system" and "political equilibrium" interchangeably.
28. This is not to say that endogenous institutional change does not have an effect on the economy. Even if we assume rational expectations, institutional changes - economic policy, in particular - may have a real effect on the economy if, for example, the government has an informational advantage over private agents or if there are nominal price rigidities. Our statement is simply one of forward-looking agents that are constantly adapting to their perceived institutional environment.
29. Notice that our definitions of revolution focus on procedures, which is consistent with our analysis of institutions as rules that constrain social behavior. Thus, exogenous institutional change is revolutionary only because it is not mediated through the existing system. This is a definition that can be used more systematically than one that focuses on the extent and direction of change, in which there is substantial disagreement about the threshold levels beyond which changes can be classified as revolutionary. Most importantly, our definition links revolutions and instability in a consistent and systematic way. By contrast, other definitions of revolutions as drastic institutional changes preclude the joint study of stability issues simply because any stable political system is capable in principle of producing such changes.
30. The first two channels can be thought of as direct effects since they stem directly from the existence of instability. The second two are indirect effects since they may occur under other circumstances as well.
31. North (fn. 12), 33-34; Clark (fn. 14), 564.
32. It is in this sense that we use the terms "political uncertainty" and "political instability" interchangeably: if agents are unable to assess the likelihood of many possible future governments and/or institutional arrangements (as in Knightian uncertainty), the stability of the political system can no longer be preserved.
33. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
34. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
35. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
36. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
37. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
38. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
39. Gordon Tullock, "The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft," Western Economic Journal 5 (June 1967); Anne O. Krueger, "The Political Economy of the Rent-Seeking Society," American Economic Review 64 (June 1974); Richard A. Posner, "The Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy 83 (August 1975); Anne O. Krueger, "Virtuous and Vicious Circles in Economic Development," American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Andrei Shleifer and Robert W. Vishny, "Corruption," Quarterly Journal of Economics 108 (August 1993); Kevin M. Murphy, Andrei Shleifer, and Robert W. Vishny, "Why Is Rent-Seeking So Costly to Growth?" American Economic Review 83 (May 1993); Paolo Mauro, "Corruption and Growth," Quarterly Journal of Economics 10 (August 1995).
40. Clark (fn. 14), 565.
41. Laurens Ballard Perry, Juárez and Díaz: Machine Politics in Mexico (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1978); Friedrich Katz, "Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867-1910," in Leslie Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, 1870-1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
42. Laurens Ballard Perry, Juárez and Díaz: Machine Politics in Mexico (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1978); Friedrich Katz, "Mexico: Restored Republic and Porfiriato, 1867-1910," in Leslie Bethell, ed., The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. 5, 1870-1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
43. John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth Century Mexico," American Historical Review 83, no. 1 (1978); Richard J. Salvucci, "Mexican National Income in the Era of Independence, 1800-45," in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800-1914 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). Government estimates of GDP can be found in Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía, e Informática (INEGI), Estadísticas Históricas de México (hereafter cited as Estadísticas Históricas) (1994), 401-2.
44. John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth Century Mexico," American Historical Review 83, no. 1 (1978); Richard J. Salvucci, "Mexican National Income in the Era of Independence, 1800-45," in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800-1914 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). Government estimates of GDP can be found in Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía, e Informática (INEGI), Estadísticas Históricas de México (hereafter cited as Estadísticas Históricas) (1994), 401-2.
45. John H. Coatsworth, "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth Century Mexico," American Historical Review 83, no. 1 (1978); Richard J. Salvucci, "Mexican National Income in the Era of Independence, 1800-45," in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800-1914 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1997). Government estimates of GDP can be found in Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía, e Informática (INEGI), Estadísticas Históricas de México (hereafter cited as Estadísticas Históricas) (1994), 401-2.
46. For a discussion of these institutional reforms, see Edward Beatty, "The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico before 1911" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Robert H. Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876-1911 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994); Noel Maurer, "Finance and Oligarchy: Banks, Politics, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1997); Coatsworth (fn. 27); Enrique Cárdenas, "A Macroeconomic Interpretation of Nineteenth-Century Mexico," in Haber (fn. 27).
47. For a discussion of these institutional reforms, see Edward Beatty, "The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico before 1911" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Robert H. Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876-1911 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994); Noel Maurer, "Finance and Oligarchy: Banks, Politics, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1997); Coatsworth (fn. 27); Enrique Cárdenas, "A Macroeconomic Interpretation of Nineteenth-Century Mexico," in Haber (fn. 27).
48. For a discussion of these institutional reforms, see Edward Beatty, "The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico before 1911" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Robert H. Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876-1911 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994); Noel Maurer, "Finance and Oligarchy: Banks, Politics, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1997); Coatsworth (fn. 27); Enrique Cárdenas, "A Macroeconomic Interpretation of Nineteenth-Century Mexico," in Haber (fn. 27).
49. For a discussion of these institutional reforms, see Edward Beatty, "The Political Basis of Industrialization in Mexico before 1911" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1996); Robert H. Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876-1911 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994); Noel Maurer, "Finance and Oligarchy: Banks, Politics, and Economic Growth in Mexico, 1876-1928" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1997); Coatsworth (fn. 27); Enrique Cárdenas, "A Macroeconomic Interpretation of Nineteenth-Century Mexico," in Haber (fn. 27).
50. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
51. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
52. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
53. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
54. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
55. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
56. For discussions of the Porfirian economic transformation, see Stephen H. Haber, Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1989); idem, "Assessing the Obstacles to Industrialization: The Mexican Economy, 1830-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 1 (1992); John H. Coatsworth, Growth against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1981); Maurer (fn. 28); Beatty (fn. 28); Sandra Kuntz Ficker and Paolo Riguzzi, eds., Ferrocarriles y vida económica en México, 1850-1950 (Railroads and economic life in Mexico, 1850-1950: From late boom to early bust) (Toluca, Mexico: El Colegio Mexiquense, 1996); Sandra Kuntz Ficker, Empresa extranjera y mercado interna: el Ferrocarril Central Mexicano, 1880-1907 (Foreign enterprise and internal markets: The Mexican central railroad, 1880-1907) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1995); Cárdenas (fn. 28); Marvin D. Bernstein, The Mexican Mining Industry, 1850-1950: A Study of the Interaction of Politics, Economics, and Technology (Albany: State University of New York, 1964), 17-94; Clark W. Reynolds, The Mexican Economy: Twentieth Century Structure and Growth (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970), 15-26.
57. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
58. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
59. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
60. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
61. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
62. See Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Adolfo Gilly, La revolución interrumpida: edición corregída y avmentada (The interrupted revolution: Revised and expanded edition) (Mexico City: Ediciones Era, 1994); John Mason Hart, Revolutionary Mexico: The Coming and Process of the Mexican Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969); Friedrich Katz, The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States and the Mexican Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920," in Bethell (fn. 26).
63. Leticia Gamboa Ojeda, "La CROM en Puebla y el movimiento textil en los Años 20" (The CROM in Puebla and the textile workers movement in the 1920s), in Memorias del Segundo Encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero (Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the History of the Workers Movement) (Puebla, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, 1984), 41; Thomas Benjamin and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); Romana Falcón, El agrarismo en veracruz: La etapa radical (The agrarian movement in Veracruz: The radical years) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1977); idem, Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938 (Revolution and the political bosses: San Luis Potosi) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1984).
64. Leticia Gamboa Ojeda, "La CROM en Puebla y el movimiento textil en los Años 20" (The CROM in Puebla and the textile workers movement in the 1920s), in Memorias del Segundo Encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero (Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the History of the Workers Movement) (Puebla, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, 1984), 41; Thomas Benjamin and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); Romana Falcón, El agrarismo en veracruz: La etapa radical (The agrarian movement in Veracruz: The radical years) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1977); idem, Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938 (Revolution and the political bosses: San Luis Potosi) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1984).
65. Leticia Gamboa Ojeda, "La CROM en Puebla y el movimiento textil en los Años 20" (The CROM in Puebla and the textile workers movement in the 1920s), in Memorias del Segundo Encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero (Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the History of the Workers Movement) (Puebla, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, 1984), 41; Thomas Benjamin and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); Romana Falcón, El agrarismo en veracruz: La etapa radical (The agrarian movement in Veracruz: The radical years) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1977); idem, Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938 (Revolution and the political bosses: San Luis Potosi) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1984).
66. Leticia Gamboa Ojeda, "La CROM en Puebla y el movimiento textil en los Años 20" (The CROM in Puebla and the textile workers movement in the 1920s), in Memorias del Segundo Encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero (Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the History of the Workers Movement) (Puebla, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, 1984), 41; Thomas Benjamin and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); Romana Falcón, El agrarismo en veracruz: La etapa radical (The agrarian movement in Veracruz: The radical years) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1977); idem, Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938 (Revolution and the political bosses: San Luis Potosi) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1984).
67. Leticia Gamboa Ojeda, "La CROM en Puebla y el movimiento textil en los Años 20" (The CROM in Puebla and the textile workers movement in the 1920s), in Memorias del Segundo Encuentro sobre historia del movimiento obrero (Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the History of the Workers Movement) (Puebla, Mexico: Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, 1984), 41; Thomas Benjamin and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990); Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993); Romana Falcón, El agrarismo en veracruz: La etapa radical (The agrarian movement in Veracruz: The radical years) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1977); idem, Revolución y caciquismo: San Luis Potosí, 1910-1938 (Revolution and the political bosses: San Luis Potosi) (Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1984).
68. Mario Ramírez Rancaño, Burguesía textil y política en la Revolución Mexicana (The textile bourgeoisie and the politics of the Mexican Revolution) (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1987), 196-206.
69. The absence of effective enforcement of formal institutions dates back to earlier periods. For an early account of enforcement of property rights, see Armando Razo, "Land Policy in Colonial Mexico: Exploring the Links between Institutional Development and Economic Performance" (Manuscript, Stanford University, 1996).
70. Jeffrey Bortz, "'Without Any More Law Than Their Own Caprice': Cotton Textile Workers and the Challenge to Factory Authority during the Mexican Revolution," International Review of Social History 42, pt. 2 (August 1997), 256-57.
71. Maurer (fn. 28), 240 and chap. 6. In fact, the owners of the banks and the owners of the factories were often one and the same group. For an account of their connections, see Rancaño (fn. 32), 95-130.
72. Rancaño (fn. 32), 209-17.
73. Rodney D. Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land: Mexican Industrial Workers, 1906-1911 (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1976), 36.
74. For instance, Luis Morones, the head of the CROM (the national labor federation) was, in fact, the minister of industry, commerce, and labor, a position he used to enrich himself by extracting rents from both factory owners and factory workers. State governors, recognizing the importance of their labor constituencies, also became champions of the labor movement. Rancaño (fn. 32), 201. Jeffrey Bortz, "The Genesis of the Mexican Labor Relations System: Federal Labor Policy and the Textile Industry, 1925-1940," The Americas 52 (July 1995); Bortz (fn. 34), 253-88.
75. For a summary and critique of this view, see John Womack, Jr., "The Mexican Economy during the Revolution, 1910-1922: Historiography and Analysis," Marxist Perspectives 1, no. 4 (1978).
76. More evidence in support of our hypothesis that agents can insulate themselves from the effects of instability comes from other lines of activity not examined in this paper. For example, petroleum extraction or mining and smelting were capital-intensive, foreign-owned enclaves that had the ability to hire mercenary armies to protect their property rights and to bring to bear diplomatic and economic pressure from foreign governments, thereby mitigating the effects of political instability. In fact, Mexican crude petroleum output grew more than fortyfold during the revolution. Estadísticas Históriecas (fn. 27), 559. For the history of foreign petroleum companies in Mexico, see Jonathan C. Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); and Linda B. Hall, Oil, Banks, and Politics: The United States and Postrevolutionary Mexico, 1917-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995).
77. More evidence in support of our hypothesis that agents can insulate themselves from the effects of instability comes from other lines of activity not examined in this paper. For example, petroleum extraction or mining and smelting were capital-intensive, foreign-owned enclaves that had the ability to hire mercenary armies to protect their property rights and to bring to bear diplomatic and economic pressure from foreign governments, thereby mitigating the effects of political instability. In fact, Mexican crude petroleum output grew more than fortyfold during the revolution. Estadísticas Históriecas (fn. 27), 559. For the history of foreign petroleum companies in Mexico, see Jonathan C. Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); and Linda B. Hall, Oil, Banks, and Politics: The United States and Postrevolutionary Mexico, 1917-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995).
78. More evidence in support of our hypothesis that agents can insulate themselves from the effects of instability comes from other lines of activity not examined in this paper. For example, petroleum extraction or mining and smelting were capital-intensive, foreign-owned enclaves that had the ability to hire mercenary armies to protect their property rights and to bring to bear diplomatic and economic pressure from foreign governments, thereby mitigating the effects of political instability. In fact, Mexican crude petroleum output grew more than fortyfold during the revolution. Estadísticas Históriecas (fn. 27), 559. For the history of foreign petroleum companies in Mexico, see Jonathan C. Brown, Oil and Revolution in Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); and Linda B. Hall, Oil, Banks, and Politics: The United States and Postrevolutionary Mexico, 1917-1924 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995).
79. Haber (fn. 29, 1989), chap. 4; Veronica de Allende Costa and Luis Felipe López Calva, "La economía mexicana durante el Porfiriato: análisis macroeconomico e interacción entre los sectores público y privado (The Mexican economy during the Porfiriato: Macroeconomic analysis and the interaction of the public and private sectors) (B. A. thesis, Universidad de las Américas-Puebla, 1991), 198-203.
80. Haber (fn. 29, 1989), 91-92, 143, 188.
81. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría
82. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
83. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
84. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
85. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); 1854 data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
86. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
87. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); 1862 data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
88. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); 1865 data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
89. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); 1878 data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
90. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); 1883 data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
91. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); 1888 data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
92. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); 1891 data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
93. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); 1893 data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
94. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); 1895 data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de
95. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); 1896 data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
96. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
97. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); 1912 data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
98. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); 1913 data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
99. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); 1914 data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
100. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
101. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
102. Data sources on the cotton textile industry are as follows: 1837-39 and 1841-42 data were obtained from Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (SHCP), Documentos para el Estudio de la Industrialización de México, 1837-1845 (Mexico City: SHCP, 1977), 82; data for 1840 were partially retrieved from L. Barjau Martinez et al., "Estadisticas Económicas del Siglo XIX," Cuadernos de Trabajo del Departamento de Investigaciones Históricas, Instituto Nacional de Antropologie é Historia (INAH) no. 14 (Mexico City: INAH, July 1976), Table 13; and from SHCP, "Industrialización en México," 82; the 1844 census was compiled from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 17-19; data for 1845 were obtained from Barjau Martinez et al., Tables 20-21; 1850 data were retrieved from Secretaría de Fomento, Colonización e Industria, Memoria que la Dirección De Colonización e Industria presentó al Ministerio De Relaciones en 17 de Enero de 1852, sobre el estado de estos Ramos en el Año Anterior (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1852); data were obtained from Gobierno del Estado de México, Estadística del Departamento de México (Mexico City: Fonapas, 1980); 1857 data were obtained from Secretaría del Estado, Memoria de la Secretaría del Estado y del Despacho de Fomento, Colonización, Industria y Comercio de la República Mexicana (Mexico City, 1857); data were obtained from J. M. Pérez Hernandez, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Statistics on the Mexican republic) (Guadalajara: Tip. del Gobierno, 1862); data were obtained from Ministerio de Fomento, Memoria 1865 (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1866); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadísticas de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda 1880); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo é historico de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tables on the geography, statistics, description, and the history of the United States of Mexico) (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884-85); data were taken from Secretaría de Fomento, Boletin Semestral de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1890); data were taken from A. Garcia Cubas, Mexico: Its Trade, Industries and Resources (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1893); data were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico de la República Mexicana 1893-94 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística 1894); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Memoria de la Secretaría de Hacienda (Mexico City, 1896); data were taken from Secretaría de Hacienda, Estadística de la República Mexicana (Mexico City: Secretaría de Hacienda, 1896); 1898-1913 excise tax data were taken from the Ministry of Finance's periodical reports in the financial weekly Semana Mercantil (Mexico City); data were taken from "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1912," located at the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), box 5, file 4 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were also located in the same archive within "Extracto de las Manifestaciones presentadas por los fabricantes de hilados y tejidos de algodón para el semestre de enero a junio de 1913," AGN, box 31, file 2 (Mexico City, n.d.); data were taken from the July 4, 1914, issue of Mexico City's El Economista Mexicano; 1915-32 data were taken from periodical reports of excise tax data found in Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público, Boletín de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico City: SHCP, 1917-32); 1924-33 statewide data were obtained from typewritten reports of the Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público - Departamento de Estadística, "Estadísticas del Ramo de Hilados y Tejidos de Algodón y de Lana," located at the Library of the Banco de México; finally, national data for 1898-1924 were taken from Dirección General de Estadística, Anuario Estadístico 1923-1924, vol. 2 (Mexico City: Dirección General de Estadística, 1926).
103. We interpret these regressions as follows. First, to assess the importance of individual explanatory variables in these regressions, we look at their relative magnitudes and statistical significance. Second, the estimate of the intercept provides a benchmark with which to compare the coefficient estimates of the other explanatory variables because it allows us to calculate the probability of the survival of firms that do not have the characteristics of the regressors. Third, as estimated, the model is a probability function for which absolute probabilities can be calculated only if the explanatory variables X are evaluated at particular values of interest.
104. The average firm size corresponded to a 0.7 percent market share. The largest firms in the industry had market shares of 5 to 12 percent.
105. We calculated these marginal effects in two steps. First, we used specification 1 in Table 2 to calculate a probability equation as a function of size: Prob(Survival = 1 | Size) = Φ(-0.451 + 213.923 x Size + 0.445 + 0.578 - 0.543), where Φ is a normal cumulative distribution function. These are graphed in Figure 1 as "absolute probability." Second, we measured changes in probability associated with size increments of 0.01 percent of market share. These changes correspond to the marginal effects of size on the probability of survival. The probability equation corrsponds to joint stock firms in the Central region. Varying location and firm type produced almost identical results to those shown here. To cross-check our results, we ran separate regressions with an intercept term and size as the only explanatory variables (given that estimates of the other variables in specification were neither robust nor statistically significant). We obtained similar results: marginal size effects were more important for the smallest firms and were exhausted at a size equivalent to 1.5 percent of market share.
106. Haber (fn. 29, 1989), 132-34.
107. Mexicos factory owners regularly communicated these problems to the government. See Archivo General de la Nación, Ramo del Departamento de Trabajo, Mexico City: box 45, file 3, pp. 1-5; box 52, file 12, pp. 1-3; box 90, file 17, p. 1; box 91, file 21, pp. 1-2; box 96, file 5, pp. 49-53; box 96, file 9, p. 45; box 107, file 22, p. 2; box 107, file 22, p. 2; box 110, file 28, p. 1; box 173, file 23, p. 1.
108. See Winston T. H. Koh et al., "Asset Pricing and Investors' Expectations: Theory and Evidence," in Theodore Bos et al., Studies in the Financial Markets of the Pacific Basin (Greenwich, Conn., and London: JAI Press, 1994). For a discussion of the value of the firm (indirectly maximized for consumers by firms) and investment costs, see Fumio Hayashi, "Tobin's Marginal q and Average q: A Neoclassical Interpretation," Econometrica 50 (January 1982).
109. See Winston T. H. Koh et al., "Asset Pricing and Investors' Expectations: Theory and Evidence," in Theodore Bos et al., Studies in the Financial Markets of the Pacific Basin (Greenwich, Conn., and London: JAI Press, 1994). For a discussion of the value of the firm (indirectly maximized for consumers by firms) and investment costs, see Fumio Hayashi, "Tobin's Marginal q and Average q: A Neoclassical Interpretation," Econometrica 50 (January 1982).
110. Data were gathered from El Economista Mexicano and La Semana Mercantil from 1896 to 1914. Data from 1914 to 1935 were gathered from the Boletin Financiero y Minero. In cases where no shares were traded, the average of the bid and ask prices was taken. Our data set includes the four largest cotton textile producers (CIDOSA, CIVSA, CIASA, and CISAASA, which jointly accounted for roughly one-third of national output), the country's steel monopoly (Fundidora Monterrey), the largest wool textile manufacturer (the Compañía Industrial de San Ildefonso), two of the country's three most important beer brewers (the Cervecería Moctezuma and the Compañía Cervecera de Toluca y México) , the country's only large-scale producer of soap and glycerin products (the Compañía Industrial Jabonera de la Laguna, which controlled 90 percent of the soap market), one of the two important producers of paper products (the Compañía Industrial de San Rafael y Anexas, which monopolized the lucrative newsprint market), and two of the three firms that dominated the production of tobacco products (El Buen Tono and La Cigarrera Mexicana).
111. Jean Meyer, "Mexico: Revolution and Reconstruction in the 1920's," in Bethell (fn. 26), 160-61.
112. Haber (fn. 29 1989), chap. 5; Humberto Morales Moreno, "Economic Elites and Political Power in Mexico, 1898-1910," Bulletin of Latin American Research 15, no. 1 (1996).
113. The fact that firms invested ahead of demand is explained by the fact that cement production tends, almost everywhere in the world, to be characterized by local monopolies. The high bulk-to-price ratio of cement means that it is economical to ship it only over short distances. In order to expand, therefore, firms must erect new production facilities in new areas of the country. And to keep out potential rivals, firms also tend to erect more productive capacity than they need in these new markets. See Ronald N. Johnson and Allen Parkman, "Spatial Monopoly, Non-Zero Profits, and Entry Deterrence:The Case of Cement," Review of Economics and Statistics 65, no. 3 (1983), 431-39.
114. Spindles constitute the most important capital input for the production of cotton textile goods, and thus the literature tends to use spindlage as the measure of capital or capacity. See, for example, Nancy F. Kane, Textiles in Transition: Technology, Wages, and Industry Relocation in the U.S. Textile Industry (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1988).
115. Mexican population data are from Estadísticas Históricas (fn. 27), 44.
116. Haber (fn. 29, 1989), 143-44.
117. Ibid., chap. 4; Costa and Calva (fn. 41), 198-203.
118. The four-firm ratio is calculated as the percentage of the market controlled by the four largest producers. The Herfindahl Index is calculated as the sum of the squares of the market shares of all firms in the industry. Because it uses data from all firms and because it weights firms by size, the Herfindahl Index is generally regarded as a superior index of concentration.
119. Interestingly enough, if we extend the analysis to the top ten firms and check their identity, we find that it was the same group of people who had been there prior to, during, and after the revolution. In other words, the revolution was not very revolutionary in this respect, since ownership remained concentrated in the hands of the very elite that it meant to dissolve.
120. Stephen Haber, "Financial Markets and Industrial Development: A Comparative Study of Government Regulation, Financial Innovation, and Industrial Structure in Brazil and Mexico, 1840-1930," in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800-1914 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1997); idem, "Industrial Concentration and the Capital Markets: A Comparative Study of Brazil, Mexico, and the United States, 1830-1930," Journal of Economic History 51 (September 1991).
121. Stephen Haber, "Financial Markets and Industrial Development: A Comparative Study of Government Regulation, Financial Innovation, and Industrial Structure in Brazil and Mexico, 1840-1930," in Stephen Haber, ed., How Latin America Fell Behind: Essays on the Economic Histories of Brazil and Mexico, 1800-1914 (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1997); idem, "Industrial Concentration and the Capital Markets: A Comparative Study of Brazil, Mexico, and the United States, 1830-1930," Journal of Economic History 51 (September 1991).
122. Kane (fn. 54).
123. See Jeremy Atack, Estimation of Economies of Scale in Nineteenth Century United States Manufacturing (New York: Garland Press, 1985); Kenneth L. Sokoloff, "Was the Transition from the Artisanal Shop to the Nonmechanized Factory Associated with Gains in Efficiency? Evidence from the U.S. Manufacturing Censuses of 1820 and 1850," Explorations in Economic History 21, no. 4 (1984); and A. B. Bernard and C. I. Jones, "Productivity across Industries and Countries: Time Series Theory and Evidence," Review of Economics and Statistics 78, no. 1 (1996).
124. See Jeremy Atack, Estimation of Economies of Scale in Nineteenth Century United States Manufacturing (New York: Garland Press, 1985); Kenneth L. Sokoloff, "Was the Transition from the Artisanal Shop to the Nonmechanized Factory Associated with Gains in Efficiency? Evidence from the U.S. Manufacturing Censuses of 1820 and 1850," Explorations in Economic History 21, no. 4 (1984); and A. B. Bernard and C. I. Jones, "Productivity across Industries and Countries: Time Series Theory and Evidence," Review of Economics and Statistics 78, no. 1 (1996).
125. See Jeremy Atack, Estimation of Economies of Scale in Nineteenth Century United States Manufacturing (New York: Garland Press, 1985); Kenneth L. Sokoloff, "Was the Transition from the Artisanal Shop to the Nonmechanized Factory Associated with Gains in Efficiency? Evidence from the U.S. Manufacturing Censuses of 1820 and 1850," Explorations in Economic History 21, no. 4 (1984); and A. B. Bernard and C. I. Jones, "Productivity across Industries and Countries: Time Series Theory and Evidence," Review of Economics and Statistics 78, no. 1 (1996).
126. The coefficients on capital and labor from the panel regressions were normalized so that α + β = 1, because our model did not identify any economies of scale. For estimates of TFP that measure output as the real value of production, this resulted in coefficients of 0.59 for capital and 0.41 for labor. For estimates of TFP that measure output in physical units, this resulted in coefficients of 0.48 for capital and 0.52 for labor.
127. Womack (fn. 39).
128. Brown (fn. 40); Hall (fn. 40).
129. Reynolds (fn. 29), appendix C.
130. One reason that single-case studies often contribute little to theory development is that historians usually attempt to study all those aspects of the case that they judge interesting or unusual, rather than systematically study particular issues that are relevant to testing or building social science theories. The result is that social scientists are often forced to conduct their own case studies, but they do so without the detailed knowledge of past societies that is the comparative advantage of historians. See George (fn. 1), 49-51.