"Without any more law than their own caprice": Cotton textile workers and the challenge to factory authority during the Mexican revolution

International Review of Social History

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 253-288

  Bortz, Jeffrey ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031531572     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0020859000114907     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. David G. LaFrance, "Labour and the Mexican Revolution: Presidente Francisco I. Madero and the Puebla Textile Workers", European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies (June 1983), p. 59.
2. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published - focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
3. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published - focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
4. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published - focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
5. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published -focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
6. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published - focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
7. Important examples include Marjorie Ruth Clark, Organized Labor in Mexico (Chapel Hill, 1934); Joe C. Ashby, Organized Labor and the Mexican Revolution Under Lazaro Cardenas (Chapel Hill, 1967); Ramon Ruiz, Labor and the Ambivalent Revolutionaries, Mexico, 1911-1923 (Baltimore, 1976); and Kevin J. Middlebrook, The Paradox of Revolution (Baltimore, 1995). Each of these books - pathbreaking when they were published - focuses on unions and their relationship to the state. John M. Hart, Anarchism and the Mexican Working Class, 1860-1931 (Austin, 1987) is less about unions, more about radical leaders. The series edited by Pablo González Casanova, La Clase Obrera en la Historia de México (Mexico, various years) is organized by presidential sexenios.
8. Dr Atl, "La Importancia Mundial de la Revolución Mexicana," Confederación Revolucionaria, Conferencias Públicas, Teatro Arbeu, 2 February 1915.
9. Frank Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution (New York, 1929), p. 2.
10. Friedrich Katz, "Villa: Reform Governor of Chihuahua", in George Wolfskill and Douglas W. Richmond, Essays on the Mexican Revolution (Austin, 1979), p. 27.
11. Ramon Ruiz, The Great Rebellion, Mexico 1905-1924 (New York, 1980), p. 409.
12. John Womack, "The Mexican Revolution, 1910-1920", in Leslie Bethell (ed.), Mexico Since Independence (Cambridge, 1991), p. 129.
13. D.A. Brading, "National Politics and the Populist Tradition", in D.A. Brading (ed.), Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge, 1980), p. 1.
14. Hart, Anarchism.
15. Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (New York, 1991), p. 575.
16. Jaime Tamayo, La clase obrera en la historia de Mexico (Mexico, 1987), p. 290.
17. Middlebrook, The Paradox, p. 5.
18. González Casanova, La Clase Obrera; Middlebrook, The Paradox.
19. González Casanova, La Clase Obrera; Middlebrook, The Paradox.
20. Salvador Novo, The War of the Fatties and Other Stories from Aztec History (Austin, 1994), p. xl.
21. José Fernández Rojas, La Revolución Mexicana de Porfírio Díaz a Victoriano Huerta 1910-1913 (Mexico, 1913).
22. Manuel Aguirre Berlanga, Revolución y Reforma, Génesis legal de la Revolución Constitucionalista (Mexico, 1918).
23. González Casanova, La Clase Obrera, Tomo 6; idem, En el Primer Gobierno Constitucional (1917-1920) (Mexico City, 1980), p. 12.
24. González Casanova, La Clase Obrera, Tomo 6; idem, En el Primer Gobierno Constitucional (1917-1920) (Mexico City, 1980), p. 12.
25. Even though the revisionist school is influential, the consensus still defends Mexico's revolution. Knight's massive study represents this ambiguity, yet its very title - The Mexican Revolution - expresses its conclusion.
26. Although there were many scattered factories, Puebla/Tlaxcala, Mexico City and Veracruz (Orizaba) generated 71 per cent of national production.
27. Moíses González Navarro, Las Huelgas Textiles en el Porfiriato (Puebla, 1970).
28. Rodney Anderson, Outcasts in Their Own Land, Mexican Industrial Workers, 1906-1911 (DeKalb, 1976), ch. 4.
29. Anderson, Outcasts; Hart, Anarchism.
30. Unión de veteranos del trabajo, Sucesos del Trabajo y sus Luchas de Antaño. Obra que narra los sufrimientos del trabajador desde 1800 a 1907 (Puebla, 1938), p. 111.
31. For an excellent summary of the Diaz regime, see Friedrich Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato, 1867-1910", in Leslie Bethell (ed.), Mexico Since Independence (Cambridge, 1991). For the situation of industrial workers, see Anderson, Outcasts.
32. For an excellent summary of the Diaz regime, see Friedrich Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato, 1867-1910", in Leslie Bethell (ed.), Mexico Since Independence (Cambridge, 1991). For the situation of industrial workers, see Anderson, Outcasts.
33. For Madero, "the aim was the realization of the great democratic ideal; and the means were free and fair elections, municipal freedom, and a respect for states rights": Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution (Lincoln, 1986), vol. 1, p. 58. The decent folk - "la gente decente" -was a popular term at the time, aptly expressing the divide between Mexico s upper and lower classes.
34. With regard to similar situations in France, Russia and China, Skocpol said "No longer reinforced by the prestige and coercive power of autocratic monarchy, the existing class relations became vulnerable to assaults from below. Social-revolutionary political crises emerged, as Lenín once so aptly put it, when it became 'impossible for the ruling classes to maintain their rule in an unchanged form' ": Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge, 1993), p. 51.
35. Tannenbaum, The Mexican Agrarian Revolution; Knight, The Mexican Revolution.
36. El Impartial (Mexico City), 21 January 1912, p. 1. Although contemporaries understood the importance of the strike, later historians ignored it. Ramírez Rancaño has the strike beginning in mid-January and circumscribed to Mexico City. Carr also starts the strike in mid-January without mentioning it was a textile movement. Hart completely ignores it. Mario Ramírez Rancaño, burguesia textil y política en la revolućion mexicana (Mexico, 1987), pp. 39-42; Barry Carr, el movimiento obrero y la polit́ica en méxico 1910-1929 (Mexico, 1991), p. 50; Hart, Anarchism, ch. 8.
37. El Impartial (Mexico City), 21 January 1912, p. 1. Although contemporaries understood the importance of the strike, later historians ignored it. Ramírez Rancaño has the strike beginning in mid-January and circumscribed to Mexico City. Carr also starts the strike in mid-January without mentioning it was a textile movement. Hart completely ignores it. Mario Ramírez Rancaño, burguesia textil y política en la revolućion mexicana (Mexico, 1987), pp. 39-42; Barry Carr, el movimiento obrero y la polit́ica en méxico 1910-1929 (Mexico, 1991), p. 50; Hart, Anarchism, ch. 8.
38. El Impartial (Mexico City), 21 January 1912, p. 1. Although contemporaries understood the importance of the strike, later historians ignored it. Ramírez Rancaño has the strike beginning in mid-January and circumscribed to Mexico City. Carr also starts the strike in mid-January without mentioning it was a textile movement. Hart completely ignores it. Mario Ramírez Rancaño, burguesia textil y política en la revolućion mexicana (Mexico, 1987), pp. 39-42; Barry Carr, el movimiento obrero y la polit́ica en méxico 1910-1929 (Mexico, 1991), p. 50; Hart, Anarchism, ch. 8.
39. El Impartial (Mexico City), 21 January 1912, p. 1. Although contemporaries understood the importance of the strike, later historians ignored it. Ramírez Rancaño has the strike beginning in mid-January and circumscribed to Mexico City. Carr also starts the strike in mid-January without mentioning it was a textile movement. Hart completely ignores it. Mario Ramírez Rancaño, burguesia textil y política en la revolućion mexicana (Mexico, 1987), pp. 39-42; Barry Carr, el movimiento obrero y la polit́ica en méxico 1910-1929 (Mexico, 1991), p. 50; Hart, Anarchism, ch. 8.
40. The factories were La Economía, Patriotísmo, Molino de Enmedio, Amatlán, Mayorazgo, La Constancia, La Teja, Santo Domingo, Santa María, Santa Cruz, Independencia, Covadonga, El Valor, as well as Metepec and El Leõn in Atlixco: El Impartial, 22 December 1911, p. 1.
41. Ibid., 29 December 1911, p. 8.
42. Ibid., 13 January 1912, p. 2.
43. Ibid., 15 January 1912, p. 1.
44. Ibid., 20 January 1912, p. 5.
45. Ibid., 13 January 1912, p. 2.
46. Ibid., 5 January 1912, p. 1.
47. Ibid., 13 January 1912, p. 2.
48. Ibid., 5 January 1912, p. 1.
49. Ibid., 16 January 1912, p. 6; 18 January 1912, p. 1; 20 January 1912, p. 5; 23 January 1912, p. 8.
50. Ibid., 18 January 1912, p. 1.
51. Ibid., 21 January 1912, pp. 1, 10.
52. Antonio Ramos Pedrueza, "A los obreros de las Fábricas de Hilados y Tejidos de la República", 4 August 1912, Archivo General de la Nación (AGN), Departamento del Trabajo (DT), Caja 50, Expediente 25.
53. Ramos Pedrueza, "A los obreros", 4 August 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 50, Exp. 25.
54. Contrato de Trabajo, AGN, DT, Caja 978, Exp. 3.
55. The 1912 contract was replaced by the 1927 contract. After the approval of the latter, in 1928 the government convened a tripartite group to draft a national labor code, which became the 1931 Ley Federal del Trabajo,
56. Sesión, 29 July 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 15, Exp. 18; and El Imparcial, 2 August 1912, p. 8.
57. Fernández Rojas, La Revolución Mexicana, p. 216.
58. Alberto Sánches Vallejo to Presidente de la Oficina del Trabajo, 10 February 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 8, Exp. 4.
59. Ibid.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.: "Comprendemos que sea efecto del triunfo que acaban de tener, pero es el caso que ya no admiten ni observaciones ni castigos en ninguna forma [. . .]"
62. José González Soto y Hno. to Director del DT, 10 August 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 7, Exp. 28: "estos insensatos obreros [. . .]".
63. Gerente to Director, Departamento del Trabajo, 6 June 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 6, Exp. 1.
64. Sánches Vallejo to Presidente, 10 February 1912, AGN, DT, Caja 8, Exp. 4.
65. El Imparcial, 23 January 1912, p. 8 and 27 January 1912, p. 1.
66. Candido Aguilar, Número 11, 19 October 1914, AGN, DT, Caja 88, Exp. 19.
67. See, for example, the complaint in Viuda de Mier to Director del Departamento del Trabajo, 18 November 1914, AGN, DT, Caja 88, Exp. 20.
68. José Natividad Díaz et al., 11 January 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 104, Exp. 10.
69. Ibid.
70. José Natividad Díaz and Luis Viveros to Gerente de la Compañía Industrial de Orizaba S.A., 8 February 1915; Gerente to Sindicato, 8 February 1915; José Natividad Díaz and Luis Viveros to Marcos López Jiménez, 12 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 98, Exp. 2.
71. In December 1914, Cocolapam workers struck, brought in government inspectors to arbitrate, then returned to work without anybody losing their job. Daniel Galindo to Director, Departamento del Trabajo, 21 December 1914, AGN, DT, Caja 91, Exp. 19.
72. Hart worked with Casa publications and autobiographies to write a fine study of the organization, its strengths and weaknesses.
73. "hay que conseguirlo a tiros y no por medio de leyes": Enrique H. Hinojosa et al. 15 March 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 104, Exp. 11.
74. "la masa de obreros que por mucho tiempo han sido vejados y vilependiados por los explotadores y por los malos gobiernos": Hinojosa, 15 March 1915.
75. "la condición de servidumbre para los mexicanos": Memorandum, "En el orden en que [. . .]", n.d, AGN, DT, Caja 104, Exp. 11.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. Norcross and Taylor to López Jiménez, 7 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 13.
79. José Natividad Díaz and Luis Viveros to Gerente de la Compania Yndustrial de Orizaba, 8 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 98, Exp. 2.
80. Gerente to Sindicato, 8 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 98, Exp. 2.
81. José Natividad Díaz and Luis Viveros to Administrador de la fabrica Cerritos, 12 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 98 Exp. 2; Norberto Castillo to Marcos López Jiménez, 12 February 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 98, Exp. 1.
82. Féderico Hernández to José Taylor, 22 April 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
83. Ibid.
84. "conformarse con [. . .] las costumbres establecidas": Joseph Taylor to Marcos López Jiménez, 23 April 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
85. "un hombre despota inepto y abandonado de sus obligaciones [. . .] si incistimos llega a decir que se le parece a uno y si no que la calle es ancha [. . .]": Manuel Sánches Martínez et al. to Manuel R. Díaz, 28 April 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
86. "que a ese por ningun motivo lo ocuparia por que constantemente le estava asiendo cargos y refutaciones sin ningun fundamento [. . .]": Manuel R. Díaz to Marcos López Jiménez, 8 May 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
87. Manuel R. Díaz to Marcos López Jiménez, 25 May 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
88. Joseph Taylor to Director del Departamento del Trabajo, 12 May 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
89. Díaz to López Jiménez, 25 May 1915, AGN, DT, Caja 97, Exp. 14.
90. "que nadie tiene derecho a lo superfluo mientras los que trabajan carecen de lo necesario": El Dictamen (Veracruz), 5 January 1916, p. 1.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid., 25 January 1916, p. 1.
93. Ibid., 27 January 1916, p. 1. Aguilar was a key political ally of Carranza. His use of "the Revolution owes them [. . .]" later became post-revolutionary code in Mexico, where "the Revolution" symbolized legitimacy. During the actual fighting, however, the use of this term meant that workers were winning their conflict with owners, to whom the revolution owed little.
94. El Dictamen, 21 February 1916, p. 1; El Pueblo (Mexico City), 22 February 1916, p. 4.
95. El Dictamen, 21 February 1916, p. 1; El Pueblo (Mexico City), 22 February 1916, p. 4.
96. Most factories paid a daily rather than hourly wage. Overtime was the rate paid for work beyond the standard workday, the "jornada". Textile factories also employed piece-work systems, sometimes in conjunction with the daily wage.
97. Acta del Sindicato, 13 June 1916, Archivo General del Estado de Veracruz (AGEV), Departamento de Economía y Previsión Social (DEPS), 1916, Exp. 703 (21-c).
98. Acta del Sindicato, 14 June 1916, AGEV, DEPS, 1916, Exp. 703 (21-c).
99. Acta, 15 June 1916.
100. Womack, "The Mexican Revolution", p. 154.
101. A review of Labor Office archives - AGN, DT - indicates that virtually every large mill in the core textile regions had its own Mesa Directiva by 1915.
102. Acta del Sindicato, 14 June 1916, AGEV, DEPS, 1916, Exp. 703 (21-c).
103. Acta, 15 June 1916.
104. Womack, "The Mexican Revolution", p. 154.
105. A review of Labor Office archives - AGN, DT - indicates that virtually every large mill in the core textile regions had its own Mesa Directiva by 1915.
106. Hart, Anarchism, p. 116.
107. Hart clearly sees the end of anarchism as the predominant ideology among workers in the defeat of the 1916 strike. One is left to conclude that this left the field open to the collaborationist policies of the CROM. For national confederations this may be true, but what happens inside factories is more complicated and contradictory. Sometimes the confederations strengthened rebellious workers in spite of their pragmatism: Hart, Anarchism, ch. 10.
108. El Demócrata (Mexico City), 3 November 1916, p. 5.
109. El Universal (Mexico City), 4 November 1916, p. 1.
110. Ibid., 6 November 1916, p. 1; 8 November 1916, pp. 1, 3.
111. Ibid., 10 November 1916, p. 1; 11 November 1916, p. 1
112. Ibid., 21 November 1916, p. 1.
113. Michael C. Meyer and William L. Sherman, The Course of Mexican History (Oxford, 1991), p. 545.
114. Clark, Organized Labor, p. 68.
115. Ramon Eduardo Ruiz, The Great Rebellion, Mexico 1905-1924 (New York, 1980), p. 293.
116. Middlebrook, The Paradox, p. 77.
117. Abraham Franco to Gobernador del Estado, 19 March 1918, Archivo Histórico del Estado de Mexico, Trabajo e Industria, Vol. 74, Exp. 51. The workshop was a taller de zacatón. Franco claimed that the group included albaniles, carpínteros, and many workers except raiceros.
118. "alegando imposibilidad de hacer prevalecer su autoridad administrativa [. . .]": Acta, Junta Central de Conciliación y Arbitraje, 20 September 1919, AGEV, JCCA, 1918, Exp. 59.
119. Acta, 20 September 1919.
120. The campesinado also continued to exert pressure. Certainly in the two major textile states, Puebla and Veracruz, the agraristas continued with their own demands throughout the 1920s.
121. "he didn't feel like doing what he was told": Francisco Sánches de Tagle to Jefe del Depto. del Trabajo, 19 January 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 222, Exp. 4.
122. Ibid.
123. The "empleados" were typically white-collar workers loyal to administration while the "obreros" were blue-collar workers generally disdained by the upper classes.
124. Gómez Haro and E. Artasanchy to Srio. de Industria, Comercio y Trabajo, 27 February 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 213, EXp. 33.
125. Ibid.; El Universal, 4 November 1916, p. 1.
126. Gómez Haro and E. Artasanchy, 27 February 1920.
127. Ibid.
128. Ibid.
129. "gente de esta naturaleza no podía tener trabajo": Vda. de Francisco M. Conde to Presidente del Centro Industrial Mejicano, 22 November 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 213, Exp. 21.
130. Ibid.
131. Manuel M. Conde Sucs. to Dept. del Trabajo, 27 March 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 5.
132. Letter to Gobernador del Estado, 31 March 1920; Antonio Juncos to Director del Dept. del Trabajo, 8 April 1920 AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 5.
133. There are a number of institutional studies of labor federations, including Carr, El movimiento obrero.
134. Gustavo Hernández to Gobernador del Estado de Tlaxcala, 10 December 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
135. These agricultural laborers used the term "trabajadores campesinos" to describe themselves. Catarino Gutiérrez et al., to Gobernador del Estado de Tlaxcala, 20 October 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
136. Ibid.
137. Vicente Díaz and Agustin Díaz to Gustavo Hernández, 21 October 1920; Eulalio Martínez et al. to Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 17 December 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
138. Manuel M. Conde Sucs and Ramon Golzarri to Centro Industrial Mexicano, 22 October 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
139. Gustavo Hernández and Vicente Díaz to Gobernador del Estado de Tlaxcala, 23 October 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
140. Acta, 18 November 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
141. Ibid., 8 January 1921, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
142. Epifanio Gómez to Esteban Florez, 30 November 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
143. Jesús Rivero Quijano to Srio. de Industria, Comercio, y Trabajo, 13 December 1920, AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
144. Memorandum, n.d., AGN, DT, Caja 214, Exp. 6.
145. El Imparcial, 7 August 1912, p. 2.
146. Departamento de la Estadistica Nacional, La Estadistica del Trabajo (Mexico, 1924), p. 15.
147. Clark, Organized Labor, p. 192.
148. S.A. Smith, "Workers and Supervisors: St Petersburg 1905-1917 and Shanghai 1895-1927", Past and Present, 139 (1993), p. 131.
149. A lively description of the corruption and control of the CROM is in Clark, Organized Labor.
150. "Organized labor's entry into national politics was among the most significant consequences of Mexico's 1910-1920 social revolution"; Middlebrook, The Paradox, p. 72.