The release of genetically engineered micro-organisms and viruses into the environment

New Phytologist

Volumn 140, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 173-184

  Giddings, Glynis ^a  

^a ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Environmental releases; Evolution; Gene transfer; Genetically engineered micro organisms; Hazards; Non target species; Persistence; Viruses

Indexed keywords

GENETIC ENGINEERING; RISK ASSESSMENT; TRANSGENE;

GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM; MICROORGANISM; MONITORING; RISK ASSESSMENT; VIRUS;

EID: 0031786144     PISSN: 0028646X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.1998.00278.x     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Amabile-Cuevas CF, Chicurel ME. 1992. Bacterial plasmids and gene flux. Cell 70: 189-199.
2. Artois M, Guittre C, Thomas I, Lebois H, Brocier B, Barrat J. 1992. Potential pathogenicity for rodents of vaccines intended for oral vaccination against rabies: a comparison. Vaccine 10: 524-528.
3. Bauer LS. 1995. Resistance - a threat to the insecticidal crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Florida Entomologist 78: 414-443.
4. Bej AK, Perlin MH, Atlas RM. 1988. Model suicide vector for containment of genetically engineered microorganisms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 54: 2472-2477.
5. Beringer JE, Bale MJ. 1988. The survival and persistence of genetically-engineered micro-organisms. In: Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA, Stewart-Tull DE, eds. Release of Genetically-Engineered Micro-Organisms. London, UK: Academic Press Publishing, 29-39.
6. Bezdicek DF, Quinn MA, Forse L, Heron D, Kahn ML. 1994. Insecticidal activity and competitiveness of Rhizobium spp containing the Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis δ-endotoxin gene (cryIII) in legume nodules. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26: 1637-1646.
7. Bingham J, Foggin CH, Gerber H, Hill FWG, Kappeler A, King AA, Perry BD, Wandeler AI. 1992. The pathogenicity of SAD rabies vaccine in chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) given by the oral route. Veterinary Record 131: 55-56.
8. Bishop DHL, Entwistle PF, Cameron IR, Allen CJ, Possee RD. 1988a. Genetically engineered baculovirus insecticides. Aspects of Applied Biology 17: 385-395.
9. Bishop DHL, Entwistle PF, Cameron IR, Allen CJ, Possee RD. 1988b. Field trials of genetically engineered baculovirus insecticides. In: Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA, Stewart-Tull DE, eds. Release of Genetically-Engineered Micro-Organisms. London, UK: Academic Press Publishing, 143-179.
10. Bjorklof K, Suoniemi A, Haahtela K, Romantschuk M. 1995. High-frequency of conjugation versus plasmid segregation of RP1 in epiphytic Pseudomonas syringae populations. Microbiology 141: 2719-2727.
11. Blancou J, Kieny MP, Lathe R, Lecoq JP, Pastoret PP, Soulebot JP, Desmettre P. 1986. Oral vaccination of the fox against rabies using a live recombinant Vaccinia virus. Nature 322: 373-375.
12. Brautigam M, Hertel C, Hammes WP. 1997. Evidence for natural transformation of Bacillus subtilis in foodstuffs. FEMS Microbiology Letters 15: 93-98.
13. Brochier B, Blancou J, Thomas I, Languet B, Artois M, Kieny MP, Lecoq JP, Costy F, Desmettre P, Chappuis G, Pastoret PP. 1989. Use of recombinant Vaccinia rabies glycoprotein virus for oral vaccination of wildlife against rabies: inocuity to several non-target bait consuming species. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 25: 540-547.
14. Brochier B, Kieny MP, Costy F, Coppens P. Baudin B, Lecoq JP, Languet B, Chappuis G, Desmettre P, Afiademanyo K, Libois R, Pastoret PP. 1991. Large-scale eradication of rabies using recombinant Vaccinia rabies vaccine. Nature 354: 520.
15. Brokamp A, Schmidt FRJ. 1991. Survival of Alcaligenes xylosoxidans degrading 2,2-dichloropropionate and horizontal transfer of its halidohydrolase gene in a soil microcosm. Current Microbiology 22: 1485-1491.
16. Bull S, Herde C. 1996. Controversy over transgenic cotton. Search 27: 235.
17. Candelier-Harvey P, Hull R. 1993. Cucumber mosaic virus genome is encapsidated in alfalfa mosaic virus coat protein expressed in transgenic tobacco plants. Transgenic Research 2: 277-285.
18. Caprio MA. 1994. Bacillus thuringiensis gene deployment and resistance management in single-tactic and multi-tactic environments. Biocontrol Science and Technology 4: 487-497.
19. Chamier B, Lorenz MG, Wackernagel W. 1993. Natural transformation of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus by plasmid DNA adsorbed on sand and groundwater aquifer material. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59: 1662-1667.
20. Chatterjee DK. 1988. A novel method to detect genetically altered microorganisms in the environment. In: Omenn GS, ed. Environmental Biotechnology: Reducing Risks From Environmental Chemicals Through Biotechnology. New York, USA: Plenum, 447.
21. Chiura HX. 1997. Generalized gene transfer by virus-like particles from marine bacteria. Aquatic Microbial Ecology 13: 75-83.
22. Clarke GM, McKenzie JA. 1987. Developmental stability of insecticide resistant phenotypes in blowfly: a result of canalizing natural selection. Nature 325: 345-346.
23. Colwell RK, Barnthouse LW, Dobson A, Taub F, Wetzler R. 1987. Response to the Office of Science and Technology policy notice 'Coordinated framework for regulation of biotechnology.' Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 68: 16-23.
24. Contreras A, Molin S, Ramos JL. 1991. Conditional-suicide containment system for bacteria which mineralize aromatics. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57: 1504-1508.
25. Cory JS, Hirst ML, Williams T, Hails RS, Goulson D, Green BM, Carty TM, Possee RD, Cayley PJ, Bishop DHL. 1994. Field trial of a genetically improved baculovirus insecticide. Nature 370: 138-140.
26. Cresswell A, Skøt L, Cookson AR. 1994. The construction, detection and use of bioluminescent Rhizobium leguminosarum biovar trifolii strains. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 77: 656-665.
27. Devanas MA, Rafaeli-Eshkol D, Stotzky G. 1986. Survival of plasmid-containing strains of Escherichia coli in soil: effect of plasmid size and nutrients on survival of hosts and maintenance of plasmids. Current Microbiology 13: 269-277.
28. Devillemeur TB, Gourmelen M, Beauvais P, Rodriguez D, Vaudour G, Deslys JP, Dormont D, Richard P, Richardet JM. 1992. Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in four children treated with growth hormone. Revue Neurologique 148: 328-334.
29. Doyle CJ, Hirst ML, Cory JS, Entwistle PF. 1990. Risk assessment studies: detailed host range testing of wild-type cabbage moth, Mamestra brassicae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), nuclear polyhedrosis virus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56: 270-4-2710.
30. Drahos DJ, Barry GF, Hemming BC, Brandt EJ, Skipper HD, Kline EL, Kluepfel DA, Hughes TA, Gooden DT. 1988. Pre-release testing procedures: US field test of a lacZY-engineered soil bacterium. In: Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA, Stewart-Tull DE, eds. Release of Genetically-Engineered Micro-Organisms. London, UK: Academic Press Publishing, 181-191.
31. Drahos DJ, Hemming BC, MacPherson S. 1986. Tracking recombinant organisms in the environment: beta galactosidase as a selectable, non-antibiotic marker for fluorescent pseudomonads. Biotechnology 4: 439-144.
32. Ehrlich PR, Ehrlich AH. 1992. The value of biodiversity. Ambio 21: 219-226.
33. Ertl HCJ, Xiang ZQ. 1996. Novel vaccine approaches. Journal of Immunology 156: 3579-3582.
34. Farinelli L, Malnoe P, Collet GF. 1992. Heterologous encapsidation of potato virus Y strain O (PVYO) with the transgenic coat protein of PVY strain N (PVYN) in Solanum tuberosum cv. Bintje. Bio/Technology 10: 1020-1025.
35. Fincham JRS, Ravetz JR. 1991. Genetically engineered organisms: benefits and risks. Council for Science and Society. Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.
36. Furner IJ, Huffman GA, Amasino RM, Garfinkel DJ, Gordon MP, Nester EW. 1986. An Agrobacterium transformation in the evolution of the genus Nicotiana. Nature 319: 422-427.
37. Gal S, Pisan B, Hohn T, Grimsley N, Hohn B. 1992. Agroinfection of transgenic plants leads to viable cauliflower mosaic virus by intermolecular recombination. Virology 187: 525-533.
38. Giddings G, Mytton L, Griffiths M, McCarthy A, Morgan C, Skøt L. 1997. A secondary effect of transformation in Rhizobium leguminosarum transgenic for Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies tenebrionis δ-endotoxin (cryIIIA) genes. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 95: 1062-1068.
39. Gould F. 1988. Genetic-engineering, integrated pest-management and the evolution of pests. Trends in Biotechnology 6: S15-S18.
40. Gould F, Martinez-Ramirez A, Anderson A, Ferre J, Silva FJ, Moar WJ. 1992. Broad spectrum resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxin in Heliothis virescens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA 89: 7986-7990.
41. Greene AE, Allison RF. 1994. Recombination between viral RNA and transgenic plant transcripts. Science 263: 1432-1435.
42. Grinsted J. 1995. Risk assessment and contained use of genetically modified microorganisms (GMMs). In: Tzotzos GT, ed. Genetically Modified Organisms : A Guide to Biosafety. UK: CAM International, 17-35.
43. Harding K. 1996. The potential for horizontal gene transfer within the environment. Agro Food Industry Hi-Tech 7: 31-35.
44. Heller KJ, Geis A, Neve H. 1996. Behavior of genetically-modified microorganisms in yogurt. Systematic And Applied Microbiology 18: 504-509.
45. Hinnebusch J, Barbour AG. 1991. Linear plasmids of Borrelia burgdorferi have a telomeric structure and sequence similar to those of a eukaryotic virus. Journal of Bacteriology 173: 7233-7239.
46. Huber J. 1992. Benefits and risk of introducing baculoviruses. OECD benefit and risk of introducing biocontrol agents. Saariselka, Finland, April 3-6, 1992.
47. Ignoffo CM. 1973. Development of a viral insecticide: concept of commercialisation. Experimental Parasitology 3: 380-406.
48. Jensen HL. 1961. Survival of Rhizobium meliloti in soil culture. Nature, 192: 682-683.
49. Jones DA, Kerr A. 1989. Agrobacterium radiobacter strain-k1026, a genetically engineered derivative of strain-k84, for biological-control of crown gall. Plant Disease 73: 15-18.
50. Jones DA, Ryder MH, Clare BG, Farrand SK, Kerr A. 1988. Construction of a tra-deletion mutant of pagk84 to safeguard the biological-control of crown gall. Molecular & General Genetics 212: 207-214.
51. Jones S. 1995. An evolutionists view of genetic engineering. In: Bernhard H, Cookson C, eds. Genethics. Debating Issues and Ethics in Genetic Engineering. Basel, Switzerland: Ciba-Geigy Limited.
52. Kennedy GG, Whalon ME. 1995. Managing pest resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxins - constraints and incentives to implementation. Journal of Economic Entomology 88: 454-460.
53. Kidambi SP, Ripp S, Miller RV. 1994. Evidence for phage-mediated gene-transfer among Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains on the phylloplane. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60: 496-500.
54. Kroschel J, Kaack HJ, Fritsch E, Huber J. 1996. Biological-control of the potato-tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller) in the republic of Yemen using granulosis-virus-propagation and effectiveness of the virus in-field trials. Biocontrol Science and Technology 6: 217-226.
55. Lawton JH, Brown VK. 1983. Redundancy in ecosystems. In: Schulze ED, Mooney HA, eds. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. New York, USA: Springer Verlag, 255-270.
56. Lecoq H, Ravelonandro M, Wipfscheibel C, Monsion M, Raccah B, Dunez J. 1993. Aphid transmission of a non-aphid-transmissible strain of zucchini yellow mosaic potyvirus from transgenic plants expressing the capsid protein of plum pox potyvirus. Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions 6: 403-406.
57. Lenski RE. 1987a. Antibiotic resistance in nosocomal infections. In: Fowle JR, ed. Application of Biotechnology : Environmental and Policy Issues. San Diego, USA: Westview Press, 99-124.
58. Lenski RE. 1987b. The infectious spread of engineered genes. In: Fowle JR, ed. Application of Biotechnology : Environmental and Policy Issues. Washington, DC, USA: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 99-124.
59. Lenski RE. 1988a. Experimental studies of pleiotropy and epistasis in Escherichia coli. I Variation in competitive fitness among mutants resistant to virus T4. Evolution 42: 425-432.
60. Lenski RE. 1988b. Experimental studies of pleiotropy and epistasis in Escherichia coli. II Compensation for maladaptive effects associated with resistant to virus T4. Evolution 42: 433-440.
61. Levin SA, Harwell MA. 1986. Potential ecological consequences of genetically engineered organisms. Environmental Management 10: 495-513.
62. Lilley AK, Bailey MJ. 1997. The acquisition of indigenous plasmids by a genetically marked pseudomonad population colonizing the sugar beet phytosphere is related to local environmental conditions. Applied And Environmental Microbiology 63: 1577-1583.
63. Lilley AK, Fry JC, Day MJ, Bailey MJ. 1994. In situ transfer of an exogenously isolated plasmid between Pseudomonas spp in sugar-beet rhizosphere. Microbiology 140: 27-33.
64. Lindow SE, Panopoulos NJ. 1988. Field tests of recombinant Ice Pseudomonas syringae for biological frost control in potato. In: Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA, Stewart-Tull DE, eds. Release of Genetically-Engineered Micro-Organisms. London, UK: Academic Press Publishing, 121-138.
65. Lommel SA, Xiong Z. 1991. Reconstitution of a functional red clover necrotic mosaic virus by recombinational rescue of the cell-to-cell movement gene expressed in a transgenic plant. Journal of Cell Biochemistrv 15: 151.
66. Mannion AM. 1992. Sustainable development and biotechnology. Environmental Conservation 19: 297-306.
67. Mannion AM. 1995. Biotechnology and environmental quality. Progress in Physical Geography 19: 192-215.
68. McArdle BH. 1990. When are rare species not there? Oikos 57: 276-277.
69. McGaughey WH. 1994. Implications of cross-resistance among Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in resistance management. Biocontrol Science and Technology 4: 427-135.
70. McGaughey WH, Whalon ME. 1992. Managing insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins. Science 258: 1451-1455.
71. Miller RV. 1988. Potential for transfer and establishment of engineered genetic sequences. In: Hodgson J, Sugden AM, eds. Planned Release of Genetically Engineered Organisms. Trends in Biotechnology/Trends in Ecology and Evolution Special Publication. Cambridge, UK: Elsevier, S23-S27.
72. Miller RV. 1998. Bacterial gene swapping in nature. Scientific American 278: 66-71.
73. Molin S. 1992. Designing microbes for release into the environment. Science Progress 76: 139-148.
74. Molin S, Klemm P, Pouslen K, Biehl H, Gerdes K, Anderson P. 1987. Conditional suicide system for containment of bacteria and plasmids. Bio/Technology 5: 1315-1318.
75. Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP, Lawton JH, Woodfin RM. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature 368: 734-737.
76. Naeem S, Thompson LJ, Lawler SP, Lawton JH and Woodfin RM. 1995. Empirical evidence that declining species diversity may alter the performance of terrestrial ecosystems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society London B 347: 249-262.
77. Nielsen KM, Bones AM, vanElsas JD. 1997a. Induced natural transformation of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in soil microcosms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63: 3972-3977.
78. Nielsen KM, van Weerelt MDM, Berg TN, Bones AM, Hagler AN, vanElsas JD. 1997b. Natural transformation and availability of transforming DNA to Acinetobacter calcoaceticus in soil microcosms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 63: 1945-1952.
79. Norrby E. 1983. Viral vaccines: the use of currently available products and future developments. Archives of Virology 76: 163-177.
80. Olesinski AA, Lucas WJ, Esra G, Shmuel W. 1995. Pleiotropic effects of tobacco-mosaic-virus movement protein on carbon metabolism in transgenic tobacco plants. Planta 197: 118-126.
81. Osbourn JK, Sarkar S, Wilson TMA. 1990. Complementation of coat protein-defective TMV mutants in transgenic tobacco plants expressing TMV coat protein. Virology 179: 921-925.
82. Paget E, Simonet P. 1997. Development of engineered genomic DNA to monitor the natural transformation of Pseudomonas stutzeri in soil-like microcosms. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 43: 78-84.
83. Paigen K. 1986. Gene regulation and its role in evolutionary process. In: Karlin S, Nevo E, eds. Evolutionary Process and Theory. Orlando, FL, USA: Academic Press, 3-36.
84. Palca J. 1986. Living outside regulation. Nature 324: 202.
85. Paoletti MG and Pimentel D. 1996. Status and prospects of genetic engineering in agriculture and the environment. Minerva Biotechnologica 8: 195-207.
86. Pastoret PP, Brochier B, Chapius G and Desmettre P. 1993. Vaccines against rabies virus. In: Pandey R, Hoglund S, Prasad G, eds. Progress in Vaccinology: Veterinary Vaccines 4. New York, USA: Springer Verlag, 139-162.
87. Pastoret PP, Brochier B, Denis M. 1995. Environmental safety assessment of vaccines from biotechnology. Revue Scientifique et technique de L. Office International des Epizooties 14: 963-977.
88. Pastoret PP, Brochier B, Languet B, Thomas I, Paquot A, Baudin B, Costy F, Antoine H, Kieny MP, Lecoq JP, Debruyn J, Desmettre P. 1988. First field trial of fox vaccination against rabies with a vaccinia-rabies recombinant virus. Veterinary Record 123: 481-483.
89. Payne CC. 1988. Pathogens for the control of insects: where next? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 318: 225-248.
90. Prietosamsonov DL, Vazquezpadron R, Ayrapardo C, Gonzalezcabrera J, Delariva GA. 1997. Bacillus thuringiensis: from biodiversity to biotechnology. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology 19: 202-219.
91. Regal PJ. 1988. The adaptive potential of genetically engineered organisms in nature. Trends in Biotechnology 6: S36-S38.
92. Reiser M, Groner A, Sander E. 1993. Cryptophlebia leucotreta (Lep., Tortricidae) - a promising alternate host for mass-production of the Cydia pomonella granulosis-virus (cpgv) for biological pest-control. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection 100: 586-598.
93. Ripp S, Miller RV. 1995. Effects of suspended particulates on the frequency of transduction among Pseudomonas aeruginosa in a fresh-water environment. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 61: 1214-1219.
94. Robinson DJ. 1996. Environmental risk assessment of release of transgenic plants containing virus-derived inserts. Transgenic Research 5: 359-362.
95. Rupprecht CE, Charlton KM, Artois M, Casey GA, Webster WA, Campbell JB, Lawson KF, Schneider LG. 1990. Ineffectiveness and comparative pathogemcity of attenuated rabies virus vaccines for the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 20: 99-102.
96. Rupprecht CE, Wiktor TJ, Johnston DH, Hamir AN, Dietzschold B, Wunner WH, Glickman LT, Koprowski H. 1986. Oral immunization and protection of raccoons (Procyon lotor) with a vaccinia-rabies glycoprotein recombinant virus vaccine. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 83: 7947-7950.
97. Sen A, Sen AN. 1956. Survival of Rhizobium japonicum in stored air dry soils. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 4: 215-220.
98. Sharples FE. 1987. Regulation of products from biotechnology. Science 235: 1329-1332.
99. Shim JS, Farrand SK, Kerr A. 1987. Biological-control of crown gall - construction and testing of new biocontrol agents. Phytopathology 77: 463-466.
100. Shorrocks B, Coates D, eds. 1993. The release of genetically-engineered organisms. British Ecological Society. Ecological Issues No. 4. Shrewsbury, UK: Field Studies Council.
101. Skøt L, Harrison SP, Nath A, Mytton LR, Clifford BC. 1990. Expression of insecticidal activity in Rhizobium containing the δ-endotoxin gene from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tenebrionis. Plant and Soil 12: 285-295.
102. Skøt L, Timms E, Mytton LR. 1994. The effect of toxin-producing Rhizobium strains on larvae of Sitona flavescens feeding on legume roots and nodules. Plant and Soil 163: 141-150.
103. Stephenson JR, Warnes A. 1996. Release of genetically modified micro-organisms into the environment. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 65: 5-14.
104. Stewart LMD, Hirst M, Lopez Ferber M, Merryweather AT, Cayley PJ, Possee RD. 1991. Construction of an improved baculovirus insecticide containing an insect-specific toxic gene. Nature 352: 85-88.
105. Stockwell VO, Kawalek MD, Moore LW, Loper JE. 1996. Transfer of pagk84 from the biocontrol agent Agrobacterium radiobacter k84 to A. tumefaciens under field conditions. Phytopathology 86: 31-37.
106. Stotzky G, Babich H. 1986. Survival of, and genetic transfer by, genetically engineered bacteria in natural environments. Advances in Applied Microbiology 31: 93-138.
107. Taylor J, Weinberg R, Languet B, Desmettre P, Paoletti E. 1988. The use of fowlpox virus vectors to vaccinate non-avian species. In: Sussman M, Collins CH, Skinner FA, Stewart-Tull DE, eds. Release of Genetically-Engineered Micro-Organisms. London, UK: Academic Press Publishing, 87-103.
108. Thompson IP, Lilley AK, Ellis RJ, Bramwell PA, Bailey MJ. 1995. Survival, colonization and dispersal of genetically-modified pseudomonas-fluorescens sbw25 in the phytosphere of field-grown sugar-beet. Bio-Technology 13: 1493-1497.
109. Tiedje JM, Colwell RK, Grossman YL, Hodson RE, Lenski RE, Mack RN, Regal PJ. 1989. The planned introduction of genetically engineered organisms: ecological consideration and recommendations. Ecology 70: 298-315.
110. Tomalski MD, Miller LK. 1991. Insect paralysis by baculovirus-mediated expression of a mite neurotoxin gene. Nature 45: 82-85.
111. Tomlin AD. 1994. Transgenic plant release: comments on the comparative effects of agriculture and forestry practices on soil fauna. Molecular Ecology 3: 51-52.
112. Top E, Mergeay M, Springael D, Verstraete W. 1990. Gene escape model - transfer of heavy-metal resistance genes from Escherichia coli to Alcaligenes eutrophus on agar plates and in soil samples. Applied Environmental Microbiology 56: 2471-2479.
113. Veal DA, Stokes HW, Daggard G. 1992. Genetic exchange in natural microbial communities. Advances in Microbial Ecology 12: 407-423.
114. Vitousek PM, Hooper DU. 1993. Biological diversity and terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry. In: Schulze ED, Mooney HA, eds. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function. New York, USA: Springer Verlag, 255-270.
115. Vogel TM, McCarty PL. 1985. Biotransformation of tetrachloroethylene to trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene, vinyl chloride and carbon dioxide under methanogenic conditions. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49: 1080-1083.
116. Voisey CR, White D, Wigley WR, Chilcott PJ, Christopher N, McGregor PG, Woodfield DR. 1994. Release of transgenic white clover plants expressing Bacillus thuringiensis genes: an ecological perspective. Biocontrol Science and Technology 4: 475-481.
117. Watrud LS, Perlak FJ, Tran MT, Obukowicz MG, Bolten SL, Kusand-Kretzmer EJ, Mayer EJ. 1985. Integrating the delta-endotoxin gene of Bacillus thuringiensis into the chromosome of root-colonizing pseudomonads. In: Halvorson HO, Pramer D, Rogol M, eds. Engineered Organisms in the Environment : Scientific Issues. Washington, DC, USA: American Society for Microbiology, 40-46.
118. Williams HG, Benstead J, Frischer ME, Paul JH. 1997. Alteration in plasmid DNA following natural transformation to populations of marine bacteria. Molecular Marine Biology And Biotechnology 3: 238-247.
119. Williamson M. 1988. Potential effects of recombinant DNA organisms on ecosystems and their components. Tibtech 6: S32-S35.
120. Williamson M, Fitter A. 1996. The varying success of invaders. Ecology 77: 1661-1666.
121. Wood HA, Granados RR. 1991. Genetically engineered baculo-virus agents for pest control. Annual Review of Microbiology 45: 69-87.
122. Wright B. 1989. Gene-spliced pesticide uncorked in Australia. New Scientist 121: 23.