Position paper of the american council on science and health on risk factors for breast cancer: Established, speculated, and unsupported

Breast Journal

Volumn 4, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 177-197

  Morgan, John W ^a,b   Gladson, Jaimie E ^a,b   Rau, Kristi S ^a  

^a LOMA LINDA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b Dept of Epidemiology Biostatistics   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; DIETHYLSTILBESTROL; ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PHYTOESTROGEN;

ABORTION; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ARTICLE; BREAST AUGMENTATION; BREAST CANCER; BREAST HYPERPLASIA; BREAST HYPERTROPHY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER MORTALITY; DIET; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; ESTROGEN THERAPY; FAMILY HISTORY; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE BREAST; MENARCHE; MENOPAUSE; NULLIPARA; OBESITY; OVARY CANCER; PREGNANCY; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RISK FACTOR;

EID: 0031777637     PISSN: 1075122X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1524-4741.1998.430177.x     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Perkins C. Laterality, detailed primary site and histology of female breast cancer, 1988-1992. In: Morris CR, Wright WE, eds. Breast Cancer in California. Sacramento: California Department of Health Services, Cancer Surveillance Section, March 1996: 30-60.
2. Horn-Ross PL. Multiple primary cancers: multiple primary cancers involving the breast. Epidemiol Rev 1991;15: 169-76.
3. Kelsey JL, Horn-Ross PL. Breast cancer: magnitude of the problem and descriptive epidemiology. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:7-16.
4. Kissane JM. Anderson's Pathology Missouri: C.V. Mosby, 1990.
5. McDivitt R, Stevens F, Berg J. Tumors of the Breast. Atlas of Tumor Pathology. Bethesda, MD: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 1967.
6. Ries LAG, Kosary CL, Hankey BF, et al., eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review: 1973-1994. National Cancer Institute. N1H Pub. No. 97-2789. Bethesda, 1997.
7. Parker SL, Tong T, Bolden S, Wingo P. Cancer statistics, 1997. CA 1997;46:5-28.
8. Ernster VL, Barclay J, Kerlikowske K, et al. Incidence of and treatment for ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast. J Am Med Assoc 1996;12:913-18.
9. Miller BA, Riess LAG, Hankey BF, et al., eds. SEER Cancer Statistics Review: 1973-1990, National Cancer Institute. NIH Pub. No. 93-2789, 1993.
10. Morgan J, Barbiera J, Poe M. Stage at diagnosis for first breast cancer cases among women 50 and older by race/ethnicity in Region 5, 1988-1994. Presented at the California Association of Regional Cancer Registries 9th Annual California Cancer Registries' Conference (San Francisco) February 28, 1997.
11. Kelsey JL, Hildreth NG. Breast and Gynecologic Cancer Epidemiology. Florida: CRC Press, 1983.
12. Kelsey JL. A review of the epidemiology of human breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1979;1:74.
13. Shimizu H, Ross RK, Bernstein L, et al. Cancers of the prostate and breast among Japanese and white immigrants in Los Angeles County. Br J Cancer 1991;63:963-66.
14. Zeigler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85(22):1819-27.
15. Bilmoria MM. The woman at increased risk for breast cancer: evaluation and management strategies. CA 1995;45: 263-78.
16. Murphy GP, Lawrence W Jr, Lenhard RE Jr. American Cancer Society Textbook of Clinical Oncology. Atlanta, 1995.
17. Easton DF, Bishop DT, Ford D, Crockford GP, the Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Genetic linkage analysis in familial breast and ovarian cancer: results from 214 families. Am J Hum Gen 1993;52:678-701.
18. Wooster R, Neuhausen SL, Mangion J, Quirk Y, Ford D, et al. Localization of a breast cancer susceptibility gene, BRCA2, to chromosome 13q12-13. Science 1994; 265:2088-90.
19. Wooster R, Bignell G, Lancaster J, et al. Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2. Nature 1995; 378:789-92.
20. Hsieh CC, Trichopoulos D, Katsouyanni K, et al. Age at menarche, age at menopause, height and obesity as risk factors for breast cancer: associations and interactions in an international case-control study, Int J Cancer 1990;46:796-800.
21. Brinton LA, Schairer C, Hoover RN, et al. Menstrual factors and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Invest 1988;6:245-54.
22. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM. Reproductive and hormonal risk factors: reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:36-47.
23. MacMahon B, Trichopoulos D, Brown J, et al. Age at menarche, urine estrogens and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer 1982;30:427-31.
24. Apter D, Reinila M, Vihko R. Some endocrine characteristics of early menarche, a risk factor for breast cancer, are preserved into adulthood. Int J Cancer 1989;44:783-87.
25. Alexander FE, Roberts MM. The menopause and breast cancer. J Epidemiol Community Health 1987;41:605-13.
26. Yuan J-M, Yu MC, Ross RK, et al. Risk factors for breast cancer in Chinese women in Shanghai. Cancer Res 1988; 48:1949-53.
27. Paffenbarger RS Jr, Kampert JB, Chang H-G. Characteristics that predict risk of breast cancer before and after menopause. Am J Epidemiol 1980;112:258-68.
28. MacMahon B, Cole P, Lin TM, et al. Age at first birth and breast cancer risk. Bull World Health Organ 1970;43:209-21.
29. Ewertz M, Duffy SW, Adami H-O, et al. Age at first birth, parity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of 8 studies form the Nordic countries, Int J Cancer 1990;46:597-603.
30. Layde PM, Webster LA, Baughman AL, et al. The independent associations of parity, age at first full term pregnancy, and duration of breast feeding with the risk of breast cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1989;42:963-73.
31. Bain C, Willett W, Rosner B, et al. Early age at first birth and decreased risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1981;114:705-9.
32. Calle EE, Mervis CA, Wingo PA, et al. Spontaneous abortion and risk of breast cancer in a prospective cohort of United States women. Cancer Causes Control 1995;6(5):460-68.
33. Kwa TJA, Pike MC. The role of oestrogens and progestagens in the epidemiology and prevention of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 1988;24:29-43.
34. Yu MC, Gerkins VR, Henderson BE, et al. Elevated levels of prolactin in nulliparous women. Br J Cancer 1981;43: 826-31.
35. Bernstein L, Pike MC, Ross RK, et al. Estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin levels in nulliparous and parous women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985;74:741-45.
36. Albrektsen G, Heuch I, Kvale G. The short-term and long-term effect of a pregnancy on breast cancer risk: a prospective study of 802,457 parous Norwegian women. Br J Cancer 1995;72:480-84.
37. Lubin JH, Burns PE, Blot WJ, et al. Risk factors for breast cancer in women in northern Alberta, Canada, as related to age at diagnosis. J Natl Cancer Inst 1982;68:211-17.
38. Pathak DR, Speizer FE, Willett WC, et al. Parity and breast cancer risk: possible effect on age at diagnosis. Int J Cancer 1986;37:21-25.
39. Leon DA. A prospective study of the independent effects of parity and age at first birth on breast cancer incidence in England and Wales. Int J Cancer 1989;43:986-91.
40. MacMahon B, Purde M, Cramer D, et al. Association of breast cancer risk with age at first and subsequent births: a study in the population of the Estonian Republic. J Natl Cancer Inst 1982;69:1035-38.
41. Lund E. Childbearing in marriage and mortality from breast cancer in Norway. Int J Epidemiol 1990;19:527-31.
42. Wang Q-S, Ross RK, Yu MC, et al. A case-control study of breast cancer in Tianjin, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 1992;1:435-39.
43. Yoo KY, Tajima K, Kuroishi T, et al. Independent protective effect of lactation against breast cancer: a case-control study in Japan. Am J Epidemiol 1992;135:726-33.
44. Chilvers CED, Pike MC, Hermon C, et al. Breast cancer and breast feeding. (Abstract). Br J Cancer 1992;66(suppl):9.
45. MacMahon B, Lin TM, Lowe CR, et al. Lactation and cancer of the breast: a summary of an international study. Bull World Health Organ 1970;42:185-94.
46. Brinton LA, Hoover R, Fraumeni JF Jr. Reproductive factors in the aetiology of breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 1983;47: 757-62.
47. London SJ, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, et al. Lactation and the risk of brerst cancer in a cohort of US women. Am J Epidemiol 1990;132:17-26.
48. Adami H-O, Bergstrom R, Lund E, et al. Absence of association between reproductive variables and the risk of breast cancer in young women in Sweden and Norway. Br J Cancer 1990;62:122-26.
49. Melnikow J, Bedinghaus JM. Management of common breast-feeding problems. J Fam Pract 1994;39:56-64.
50. Lund E. The research tide ebbs for the dietary fat hypothesis in breast cancer. Epidemiology 1994;5:387-88.
51. Chan P, Cohen LA. Effect of dietary fat, antiestrogen and antiprolactin on the development of mammary tumors in rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974;52:25.
52. Carroll KK, Khor HT. Effects of level and type of dietary fat on incidence of mammary tumors induced in female Sprague-Dawley rats by 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene. Lipids 1971;6:415.
53. Silverman J, Shellabarger CJ, Holtzman SS, Weisburger JH. Effect of dietary fat on X-ray-induced mammary cancer in Sprague-Dawley rats. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;66:291.
54. Kritchevesky D, Weber M, Klurfeld D. Dietary fat versus caloric content in initiation and promotion of 7, 12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary tumorigenesis in rats. Cancer Res 1984;44:3174-77.
55. Carroll KK. Experimental evidence of dietary factors and hormone-dependent cancers. Cancer Res 1975;35:3374-83.
56. Armstrong R, Doll R. Enviromental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices, Int J Cancer 1975;15:617-31.
57. Hunter DJ, Willett WC. Diet and body build: diet, body size, and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:110-32.
58. Willet WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer; an 8-year follow-up. JAMA 1992;268:2037-44.
59. Holmberg L, Ohlander EM, Byers T, et al. Diet and breast cancer risk: results from a population-based, case-control study in Sweden. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:1805-11.
60. Grodin JM, Siiteri PK, MacDonald PC. Estrogen receptors and the estrone hypothesis in relation to endometrial and breast cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1974;2:228.
61. Parazzini F, LaVecchia C, Negri E, et al. Anthropometric variables and risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer 1990; 45:397-402.
62. DeWaard F, Halewijn EAB. A prospective study in general practice on breast-cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Int J Cancer 1974;14:153.
63. Goldin BR, Aldercreutz H, Gorbach SL, et al. Estrogen excretion patterns and plasma levels in vegetarian and omnivorous women. N Engl J Med 1982;307:1542-47.
64. Potter J, McMichael A. Large bowel cancer in women in relation to reproductive and hormonal factors: A case-control study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1983;71;4:703-9.
65. Cohen LA, Kendall ME, Zang E, et al. Modulation of N-nitrosomethylurea-induced mammary tumor promotion by dietary fiber and fat. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991;83:496-501.
66. Howe GR, Hirohata J, Hislop TG, et al. Dietry factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990;82:561-69.
67. Harman D. Dimethylbenzanthracene-induced cancer: inhibitory effect of dietary vitamin E.(Abstract). Clin Res 1969; 17:125.
68. Lee C, Chen C. Enhancement of mammary tumorigenesis in rats by vitamin E deficiency.(Abstract). Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 1979;20:132.
69. King MM, McCay PB. Modulation of tumor incidence and possible mechanisms of inhibition of mammary carcinogenesis by dietary antioxidants. Cancer Res 1983;43: 2485S.
70. London SJ, Stein EA, Henderson IC, et al. Carotenoids, retinol, and vitamin E and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control 1992; 3:503-12.
71. Comstock GW, Helzlsouer KJ, Bush TL. Prediagnostic serum levels of carotenoids and vitamin E as related to subsequent cancer in Washington County, Maryland. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:260S-4S.
72. Knekt P. Serum vitamin E level and risk of female cancers. Int J Epidemiol 1988;17:281-86.
73. Graham S, Marshall J, Mettlin C, et al. Diet in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1982;11:668-75.
74. Grahm S, Zielezny M, Marshall J, et al. Diet in the epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in the New York State cohort. Am J Epidemiol 1992;136:1327-37.
75. Grahm S, Hellmann R, Marchall J, et al. Nutritional epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in western New York. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:552-66.
76. Bernstein L, Henderson BE, Hanisch R, et al. Physical exercise and reduced risk of breast cancer in young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;18:1403-8.
77. Hederson BE, Ross RK, Judd HL, et al. Do regular ovulatory cycles increase breast cancer risk? Cancer 1985;56: 1206-8.
78. Hederson BE, Ross RK, Bernstein L. Estrogens as a cause of human cancer: the Richardand Hinda Rosenthal Foundation award lecture. Cancer Res 1988;48:246-53.
79. Bernstein L, Ross RK, Obo RA, et al. The effects of moderate physical activity on menstrual cycle patterns in adolescence: implications for breast cancer prevention. Br J Cancer 1987;55:681-85.
80. Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Vincent L. Delayed menarche and amenorrhea in ballet dancers. N Engl J Med 1980;303:17-19.
81. Frisch RE, Gotz-Welbergen AV, McArthur JW, et al. Delayed menarche and amenorrhea of college athletes in relation to age at onset of training. JAMA 1981;246:1559-63.
82. Thune I, Brenn T, Lund E, Gaard M. Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1269-75.
83. Frish RE, Wyshak G, Albright NL, et al. Lower prevalence of breast cancer and cancers of the reproductive system among former college athletes compared to non-athletes. B J Cancer 1985;52:885-91.
84. Vena JE, Graham S, Zielezny M, et al. Occupational exercise and risk of cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;45:318-27.
85. Vihko VJ, Apter DL, Pukkala EI, et al. Risk of breast cancer among female teachers of physical education and languages. Acta Oncol 1992;31:201-4.
86. Kelsey JL, Fischer DB, Holford TR, et al. Exogenous estrogens and other factors in the epidemiology of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1981;67:327.
87. Coombs LJ, Lilienfeld AM, Bross IDJ, Burnett WS. A prospective study of the relationship between benign breast diseases and breast carcinoma. Prev Med 1979;8:40.
88. Hutchinson WB, Thomas DB, Hamlin WB, et al. Risk of breast cancer in women with benign breast disease. J Natl Cancer Inst 1980;65:13.
89. Davis HH, Simons M, Davis JB. Cystic disease of the breast: relationship to carcinoma. Cancer 1964;17:957.
90. Donnelly PK, Baker KW, Carney JA, O'Fallon WM. Benign breast lesions and subsequent breast carcinoma in Rochester, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc 1975;50:650.
91. Kodlin D, Winger EE, Morgenstern NL, Chen U. Chronic mastopathy and breast cancer: a follow-up study. Cancer 1977;39:2603-7.
92. Lewison EF, Lyons JG. Relationship between benign breast disease and cancer. Arch Surg 1953;66:94.
93. Monson RR, Yen S, MacHahon B, Warren S. Chronic mastitis and carcinoma of the breast. Lancet 1976;2:224.
94. Devitt JE. Breast cancer and preceding clinical benign breast disorders: a chance association. Lancet 1976;1:793.
95. Devitt JE. Fibrocystic disease of the breast is not premalignant. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1972;134:803.
96. Page DL, Dupont WD. Benign breast disease: indicators of increased breast cancer risk. Cancer Detect Prevent 1992;16:93-97.
97. London SJ, Connolly JL, Schnitt SJ, Colditz GA. A prospective study of benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1992;267:941-44.
98. Nomura Y, Tashiro H, Katsuda Y. Benign breast disease as a breast cancer risk in Japanese women. J Cancer Res. 1993;94:938-44.
99. Moskowitz M, Gartside P, Wirman JA, McLaughlin C. Proliferative disorders of the breast as risk factors for breast cancer in a self-selected screened population: pathologic markers. Radiology 1980;134:289.
100. Potter JF, Slimbaugh WP, Woodard SC. Can breast carcinoma be anticipated? A follow-up of benign breast biopsies. Ann Surg 1968;167:829.
101. Thomas DB. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer: review of the epidemiologic literature. Contraception 1991;43: 597-642.
102. Callee EE, Heath CW Jr, Miracle-McMahill HL, et al. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53,297 women with breast cancer and 100,239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 1996;346:1713-27.
103. Bernstein L, Henderson B. Exogenous hormones. In: Shottenfeld D, Fraumeni J., eds. Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention, 2d ed. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996.
104. Brinton LA, Schairer C. Estrogen replacement therapy and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993;25:66-79.
105. Mills PK, Beeson L, Phillips RL, et al. Prospective study of exogenous hormone use and breast cancer in Seventh-day Adventists. Cancer 1989;64:591-97.
106. Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al. Type of postmenopausal hormone use and risk of breast cancer: 12-year follow-up from the Nurses' Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 1992;3:433-39.
107. Smith HO, Kammerer-Doak DN, Barbo DM, Sarto GE. Hormone replacement therapy in the menopause: a pro opinion. CA 1996;46:343-63.
108. Ewertz M. Influence of non-contraceptive exogenous and endogenous sex hormones on breast cancer risk in Denmark. IntJ Cancer 1988;42:832-38.
109. Wingo PA, Layde PM, Lee NC, et al. The risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women who have never used estrogen replacement therapy. JAMA 1987;257:209-15.
110. Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Clarke EA, et al. Breast cancer risk after estrogen replacement therapy: results from the Toronto Breast Cancer Study. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:1386-95.
111. Kaufman DW, Miller DR, Rosenberg L, et al. Non-contraceptive estrogen use and the risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1984;252:63-70.
112. Stanford JL, Thomas DB. Exogenous progestins and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:98-109.
113. Henderson BE, Ross RK, Lobo RA, et al. Re-evaluating the role of progestogen therapy after the menopause. Fertil Steril 1988;49:9S-15S.
114. Hemminki E, Kennedy DL, Baum C, et al. Prescribing of noncontraceptive estrogens and progestins in the United States: 1974-86. Am J Public Health 1988;78:1479-81.
115. Colditz GA, Egan KM, Stampfer MJ. Hormone replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer: Results from epidemiologic studies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:1473-80.
116. Hunt K, Vessey M, McPherson K, Coleman M. Long-term surveillance of mortality and cancer incidence in women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987;94:620-35.
117. Gambrell RD Jr, Maier RC, Sanders BI. Decreased incidence of breast cancer in postmenopausal estrogen-progestogen users. Obstet Gynecol 1983;62:435-43.
118. Sillero-Arenas M, Delgado-Rodriquez M, Rodigues-Canteras R, et al. Menopausal hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:286-94.
119. Steinberg KK, Thacker SB, Smith SJ, et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on the risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1991;265:1985-90.
120. Beral V, Colwell L. Randomized trial of high doses of stilboestrol and ethisterone in pregnancy: long-term follow-up of mothers. BMJ 1980;281:1098-1101.
121. Greenberg ER, Barnes AB, Resseguic L, et al. Breast cancer in mothers given diethylstilbestrol in pregnancy. NEJM 1984;311:1393-98.
122. Colton T, Greenberg ER, Noller K, et al. Breast cancer in mothers prescribed diethylstibestrol in pregnancy. JAMA 1993;269:2096-2100.
123. Brian DD, Tilly BC, Labarthe DR, O'Fallon WM, Noller KL, Kurland LT. Breast cancer in DES-exposed mothers: absence of association. Mayo Clin Proc 1980;55:89-93.
124. Vessey MP, Fairweather DVI, Norman-Smith B, Buckley J. A randomized double-blind controlled trial of the value of stilboestrol therapy in pregnancy: long-term follow-up of mothers and their offspring. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:1007-17.
125. Krieger N, Wolff MS, Hiatt RA, Rivera M, Vogelman J, Orentreich N. Breast cancer and serum organochlorines: a prospective study among white, black and Asian women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:589-99.
126. Safe SH. Xenoestrogens and breast cancer (editorial). NEJM 1997;337:1303-4.
127. Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Brisson J, Dodin S. Breast cancer and organochlorines. Lancet 1994;344:1707-8.
128. Falck F, Ricci A, Wolff MS, Godbold J, Deckers P. Pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyl residues in human breast lipids and their relation to breast cancer. Arch Environ Health 1992; 47:143-46.
129. Wolff MS, Toniolo PG, Lee EW, Rivera M, Dublin N. Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:648-52.
130. Unger M, Kiaer H, Blichert-Toft M, et al. Organochlorine compounds in human breast fat from deceased with and without breast cancer and in biopsy material from newly diagnosed patients undergoing breast surgery. Environ Res 1984;34:24-28.
131. Key T, Reeves G. Organochlorines in the environment and breast cancer. BMJ 1994;308:1520-21.
132. Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Laden F, Colditz GA, et al. Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer. NEJM 1997;337:1253-58.
133. Van't Veer P, Lobbezoo IE, Martin-Moreno JM, et al. DDT (dicophane) and postmenopausal breast cancer risk: a case-control study. BMJ 1997;315:81-85.
134. Ritter L. Report of a panel on the relationship between public exposure to pesticides and cancer. Cancer 1997; 80:2019-33.
135. Heath CW. Pesticides and cancer risk (editorial). Cancer 1997;80:1887-88.
136. Knight DC, Eden JA. A review of the clinical effects of phytoestrogens. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:897-904.
137. Herman C, Adlerceutz T, Goldin B, et al. Soybean phytoestrogen intake and cancer risk. J Nutr 1995;125:757s-70s.
138. Barnes S, Peterson T, Coward L. Rationale for the use of genistein-containig soy matrixes in chemoprevention trials for breast and prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem 1995;S22:181-87.
139. Messina M, Persky V, Setchell K, Barnes S. Soy intake and cancer risk: A review of the in vitro and in vivo data. Nutr Canc 1994;21:113-31.
140. Persky V, VanHorn L. Epidemiology of soy and cancer: perspectives and directions. J Nutr 1995;125:709S-12S.
141. Brind J, Chinchilli M, Severs W, Summy-Long J. Induced abortion as an independent risk factor for breast cancer: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. J Epidemiol Community Health 1996;50:481-96.
142. Melbye M, Wohlfahrt J, Olsen J, et al. Induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer. NEJM 1997;336:81-85.
143. Harris BM, Eklund G, Meirik O, Rutqvist LE, Wiklund K. Risk of cancer of the breast after legal abortion during first trimester: a Swedish register study. BMJ 1989;299:1430-32.
144. Deapen DM, Brody GS. Augmentation mammaplasty and breast cancer: a 5-year update of the Los Angeles Study. Plast Reconstruct Surg 1992;89:660-65.
145. Trichopoulos D, Lipman RD. Mammary gland mass and breast cancer risk. Epidemiology 1992;3:523-26.
146. Franceschi S. Breast size, breast reduction, and cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:125-26.
147. Boice JD Jr, Friis S, McLaughlin JK, et al. Cancer Causes Control 1997;8:253-258.
148. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. JNCI 1993;85:1819-27.
149. Hoe AL, Mullee MA, Royle GT, et al. Breast size and prognosis in early breast cancer. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1993; 75:18-22.
150. Kolonel LN, Nomura MY, Lee J, Hirohata T. Anthropometric indicators of breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women in Hawaii. Nutr Cancer 1986;8:247-56.
151. Wynder EL, Bross IJ, Hirayama T. A study of the epidemiology of cancer of the breast. Cancer 1960;130:559-601.
152. Valaoros VG, MacMahon B, Trichopoulos D, Polychronopoulo A. Lactation and reproductive history of breast cancer patients in Greater Athens, 1965-67. Int J Cancer 1969; 4:350-63.
153. Adami HO, Rimstein A. Adipose tissue and aetiology of breast cancer. Lancet 1978;2:677-78.
154. Swanson CA, Coates RJ, Schoenberg JB, et al. Body size and breast cancer risk among women under age 45. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:698-706.
155. Dupont WD, Page DL. Breast cancer risk associated with proliferative disease, age at first birth, and a family history of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1987;125:769-79.
156. Krieger N. Exposure, susceptibility, and risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1989;13:205-23.
157. Deapen DM, Pike MC, Casagrande JT, Brody GS. The relationship between breast cancer and augmentation mammaplasty: an epidemiologic study. Plast Reconst Surg 1986;77:361-67.
158. Birdsell DC, Jenkins H, Berkel H. Breast cancer diagnosis and survival in women with and without breast implants. Plast Reconst Surg 1993;92:795-800.
159. Chavez LR, Hubbell FA, McMullin JM, Martinez RG, Mishra SI. Understanding knowledge and attitudes about breast cancer. A cultural analysis. Arch Fam Med 1995;4: 145-52.
160. Wanebo CK, Johnson KG, Sato K, Thorslund TW. Breast cancer after exposure to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. N Eng J Med 1968;279:667-71.
161. McGregor DH, Land CE, Choi K, et al. Breast cancer incidence among atomic bomb survivors, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, 1950-69. J Natl Cancer Inst 1977;59:799-811.
162. Tokunaga M, Land CE, Aoki Y, et al. Proliferative and nonproliferative breast disease in atomic bomb survivors. Cancer 1993;72:1657-65.
163. Tokunaga M, Land CE, Tokuoka S, et al. Incidence of female breast cancer among atomic bomb survivors, 1950-1985. Radiation Res 1994;138:209-23.
164. Boice JD, Land CE, Shore RE, Norman JE, Tokunaga M. Risk of breast cancer following low-dose radiation exposure. Radiology 1979;131:589-97.
165. MacKenzie I. Breast cancer following multiple fluoroscopies. Br J Cancer 1965;19:1-8.
166. Boice JD, Monson RR. Breast cancer in women after repeated fluoroscopic examinations of the chest. J Natl Cancer Inst 1977;59:823-32.
167. Shore RE, Hemplemann LN, Kowaluk E, et al. Breast neoplasms in women treated with x-rays for acute postmartum mastistis. J Nal Cancer Inst 1977;59:813-22.
168. John EM, Kelsey JL. Radiation and other environmental exposures and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:157-62.
169. Schreiber GH, Swaen GMH, Meijers JMM, Slangen JJM, Sturmans F. Cancer mortality and residence near electricity transmission equipment: a retrospective cohort study. Int J Epidem 1993;22:9-15.
170. Vena JE, Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Laughlin R, Swanson M, Graham S. Risk of premenopausal breast cancer and use of electric blankets. Am J Epidem 1994;140:974-79.
171. Stevens RG. Breast cancer and electric power. Biomed Pharm 1993;47:435-38.
172. Loomis DP, Savitz DA, Ananth CV. Breast cancer mortality among female electrical workers in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994;86:921-25.
173. Pool R. Electromagnetic fields: the biological evidence. Science 1990;249:1378-81.
174. William BC, ed. A Textbook of Pathology: Structure and Function of Disease, 8th ed. Philadephia: Lea and Febiger, 1970.
175. NRPB Advisory Group on Non-ionizing Radation. Documents of the NRPB, vol. 5, no. 2, 1994.
176. Goldberg RB. The American Physical Society's prouncement on EMF and cancer: Does it clarify EMF issues? (Editorial). EMF Health Report, vol. 3, no. 3, May/June 1995.
177. IEE Affairs Board Report No. 10. Possible Biological Effects of Low-Frequency Electomagnetic Fields, July 1991.
178. Schatzkin A, Longnecker MP. Alcohol and breast cancer. Cancer 1994;74(Suppl):1101-10.
179. Bowlin SJ, Leske MC, Varma A, Nasca P, Weinstein A, Caplan L. Breast cancer risk and alcohol consumption: results from a large case-control study. Int J Epidem 1997;26: 915-23.
180. Longnecker MP, Berlin JA, Orza MJ, Chalmers TC. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1988;260:652-56.
181. Katsouyanni K, Trichopoulou A, Stuver S, Vassilaros S, et al. Ethanol and breast cancer: an association that may be both confounded and causal. Int J Cancer 1994;58:356-61.
182. Van Den Brandt PA, Goldbohm RA, Veer, PV. Alcohol and breast cancer: results from the Netherlands cohort study. Am J Epidem 1995;141:907-15.
183. Longnecker MP, Newcomb PA, Mittendorf R, et al. Risk of breast cancer in relation to lifetime alcohol consumption. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:923-29.
184. Byers CB, Funch DP. Alcohol and breast cancer. (Letter). Lancet 1982;1:799-800.
185. Harris RE, Wynder EL. Breast cancer and alcohol consumption: a study in weak association. JAMA. 1988;259: 2867-71.
186. Meara J, McPherson K, Roberts M, et al. Alcohol, cigarette smoking and breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1989;60:70-73.
187. Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK. Breast cancer and alcohol consumption. (Letter). Lancet 1983;2:626-27.
188. Harvey EB, Schairer C, Brinton LA, et al. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1971;78: 657-61.
189. Rosenberg L, Schwingi PJ, Kaufman DW, et al. Breast cancer and cigarette smoking. N Engl J Med 1984;310:92-94.
190. Smith EM, Sowers MF, Burns TL. Effects of smoking on the development of female reproductive cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1984;73:371-76.
191. Brinton LA, Schairer C, Stanford JL, et al. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1986;123:614-22.
192. Adami HO, Lund E, Bergstrom R, et al. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987;78:229-34.
193. Vatten LJ, Kvinnsland S. Cigarette smoking and risk of breast cancer: a prospective study of 24,329 Norwegian women. Eur J Cancer. 1990;26:830-33.
194. Field NA, Baptiste MS, Nasca PC, et al. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer, Int J Epidemiol 1992;21:842-48.
195. Smith SJ, Deacon JM, Chilvers CED, et al. Alcohol, smoking, passive smoking, and caffeine in relation to breast cancer risk in young women. Br J Cancer. 1994;70:112-19.
196. Ewertz M. Smoking and breast cancer risk in Denmark. Cancer Causes Control 1990;1:31-37.
197. Calle EE, Miracle-McMahill HL, Thun MJ, et al. Cigarette smoking and risk of fatal breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:1001-7.
198. Rohan TE, Baron JA. Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1989;129:36-42.
199. Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Clarke EA, et al. Breast cancer and cigarette smoking: a hypothesis. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134:1-13.
200. Chu SY, Stroup NE, Wingo PA, et al. Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1990;131: 244-53.
201. Meara J, McPherson K, Roberts M, et al. Alcohol, cigarette smoking, and breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1989;60:70-73.
202. Stockwell HG, Lyman GH. Cigarette smoking and the risk of female reproductive cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 157:35-40.
203. Hiatt RA, Fireman BH. Smoking, menopause, and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1986;76:833-38.
204. Vessey M, Baron J, Doll R, et al. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer: final report of an epidemiological study. Br J Cancer 1983;47:455-62.
205. O'Connell DL, Hulka BS, Chambles LE, et al. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987;78:229-34.
206. Napier K. Cigarettes: What the Warning Label Doesn't Tell You. The First Comprehensive Guide to the Health Consequences of Smoking. New York: American Council on Science and Health, 1996.
207. Morabia A, Bernstein M, Heritier S, Khatchatrian N. Relation of breast cancer with passive and active exposure to tobacco smoke. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:918-28.
208. Harris RE, Namboodiri KK, Farrar WB. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and breast cancer. Epidem 1996; 7:203-5.
209. Schreinemachers DM, Everson RB. Aspirin use and lung, colon, and breast cancer incidence in a prospective study. Epidem 1994; 5:138-46.
210. Cameron DJ, O'Brien P, Majeski JA. Effects of in vivo treatment with ibuprofen on macrophage function in breast and colon cancer patients. J Clin Lab Immunol 1986;20:23-28.
211. Butrum RR, Clifford CK, Lanza E. NCI dietary guidlines: rationale. American J Clin Nutr 1988;48(suppl).
212. The Surgeon General's Report on Nutrition and Health. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1988.