Pharmacokinetic optimisation of the treatment of bacterial central nervous system infections

Clinical Pharmacokinetics

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 1998, Pages 223-246

  Nau, Roland ^a   Sörgel, Fritz ^b   Prange, Hilmar W ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

^b Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Research   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CHLORAMPHENICOL; METRONIDAZOLE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN;

AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BLOOD CEREBROSPINAL FLUID BARRIER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTION; CEREBROSPINAL FLUID; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; EXTRACELLULAR SPACE; GLIA CELL; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INFECTIONS; CEREBRAL VENTRICLES; CHILD; DRUG RESISTANCE, MICROBIAL; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TESTS; MIDDLE AGED;

EID: 0031703774     PISSN: 03125963     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00003088-199835030-00005     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Quagliarello V, Scheld WM. Bacterial meningitis: pathogenesis, pathophysiology and progress. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 864-72
2. Durand ML, Calderwood, SB, Weber DJ, et al. Acute bacterial meningitis in adults: a review of 493 episodes. N Engl J Med 1993; 328, 21-8
3. Helwig H. Empfehlungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft 'Meningitis der Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft für Chemotherapie e.V. zur Diagnostik und Therapie der bakteriellen Meningitis. Z Antimikrob Antineoplast Chemother 1984; 2: 209-13
4. Pikis A, Donkersloot JA, Akram S, et al. Decreased susceptibility to imipenem among penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40: 105-8
5. Crone C. The blood-brain barrier: facts and questions. In: Siesjö BK, Sörensen SC, editors. Ion homeostasis of the brain. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1971: 52-62
6. Nabeshima S, Reese TS, Landis DMD, et al. Junctions in the meninges and marginal glia. J Comp Neurol 1975; 164: 127-70
7. Brightman MW, Reese TS. Junctions between intimately apposed cell membranes in the vertebrate brain. J Cell Biol 1969; 40: 648-77
8. Rosenberg GA, Kyner WT, Estrada E. Bulk flow of brain interstitial fluid under normal and hyperosmolar conditions. Am J Physiol 1980; 238: H42-8
9. Nau R, Sörgel F, Prange HW. Lipophilicity at pH 7.4 and molecular size govern the entry of not actively transported drugs into the cerebrospinal fluid in humans with uninflamed meninges. J Neurol Sci 1944; 122: 61-5
10. Norrby SR. Role of cephalosporins in the treatment of bacterial meningitis in adults: overview with special emphasis on ceftazidime. Am J Med 1985; 79 Suppl. 2A: 56-61
11. Nau R, Prange HW, Muth P, et al. Passage of cefotaxime and ceftriaxone into cerebrospinal fluid of patients with uninflamed meninges. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 1518-24
12. Nau R, Prange HW, Kinzig M, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid ceftazidime kinetics in patients with external ventriculostomies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 763-6
13. Nau R, Lassek C, Kinzig-Schippers M, et al. Disposition and elimination of meropenem in the cerebrospinal fluid of hydrocephalic patients with external ventriculostomy [poster A50]. 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1997 Sep 28-Oct 1; Toronto
14. Nau R, Kinzig-Schippers M, Sörgel F, et al. Kinetics of piperacillin and tazobactam in ventricular cerebrospinal fluid of hydrocephalic patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 987-91
15. Nakagawa H, Yamada M, Tokiyoshi K, et al. Penetration of potassium clavulanate/ticarcillin sodium into cerebrospinal fluid in neurosurgical patients Jpn J Antibiot 1994; 47: 93-101
16. Kühnen E, Pfeifer G, Frenkel C. Penetration of fosfomycin into cerebrospinal fluid across non-inflamed and inflamed meninges. Infection 1987; 15: 422-4
17. Nau R, Scholz P, Sharifi S, et al. Netilmicin cerebrospinal fluid concentrations after an intravenous infusion of 400mg in patients without meningeal inflammation. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 32: 893-6
18. Nau R, Prange HW, Menck S, et al. Passage of rifampicin into the cerebrospinal fluid of adults with uninflamed meninges. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992; 29: 719-24
19. Dudley MN, Levitz RE, Quintiliani R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of adult patients with normal meninges. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1984; 26: 811-4
20. Nau R, Prange HW, Martell J, et al. Penetration of ciprofloxacin into the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with uninflamed meninges. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990; 25: 965-73
21. Karimi A, Knothe H, Scholl H. Penetration von Ciprofloxacin in den Liquor - Vergleich zu Ofloxacin. Fortschr Antimikrob Antineoplast Chemother 1991; 10 (3): 289-97
22. Nau R, Kinzig M, Dreyhaupt T, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid kinetics of ofloxacin and its metabolites after a single intravenous infusion of 400mg ofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994, 38: 1849-53
23. Bouquet S, Desbordes JM, Muckensturm M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and cerebrospinal diffusion of ofloxacin after intravenous infusion in hydrocephalic patients. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11 Suppl. 5: S1207-8
24. Dow J, Chazal J, Frydman AM, et al. Transfer kinetics of pefloxacin into cerebro-spinal fluid after one hour iv infusion of 400mg in man. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986; 17 Suppl. B: 81-7
25. Ebert S, Leggett J, Vogelman B, et al. Evidence for a slow elimination phase for penicillin G. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 200-2
26. Woodnut G, Berry V, Mizen L. Effect of protein binding on penetration of β-lactams into rabbit peripheral lymph. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2678-83
27. Pardridge WM, Sakiyama R, Fierer G. Transport of propranolol and lidocaine through the rat blood-brain barrier. J Clin Invest 1983; 71: 900-8
28. Pardridge WM, Mietus LJ. Transport of steroid hormones through the rat blood-brain barrier: primary role of albumin-bound hormone. J Clin Invest 1979; 64: 145-54
29. Spector R. Ceftriaxone pharmacokinetics in the central nervous system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1986; 236: 380-3
30. Spector R. Advances in understanding the pharmacology of agents used to treat bacterial meningitis. Pharmacology 1990; 41: 113-8
31. Dacey RG, Sande MA. Effect of probenecid on cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of penicillin and cephalosporin derivatives. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1974; 6: 437-41
32. Nichterlein T, Kretschmar M, Siegsmund M, et al. Erythromycin is ineffective against Listeria monocytogenes in multidrug resistant cells. J Chemother 1995; 7: 184-8
33. Schinkel AH, Smit JJM, van Tellingen O, et al. Disruption of the mouse mdrla P-glycoprotein gene leads to a deficiency in the blood-brain barrier and to increased sensitivity to drugs. Cell 1994; 77: 491-502
34. Schinkel AH, Wagenaar E, van Deemter L, et al. Absence of the mdr1a P-glycoprotein in mice affects tissue distribution and pharmacokinetics of dexamethasone, digoxin, and cyclosporin A. J Clin Invest 1995; 96: 1698-705
35. Phung-Ba V, Warnery A, Scherman D, et al. Interaction of pristinamycin IA with P-glycoprotein in human intestinal epithelial cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 288: 187-92
36. Cordon-Cardo C, O'Brien JP, Casals D, et al. Multidrug-resistance gene (P-glycoprotein) is expressed by endothelial cells at blood-brain barrier sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1989; 86: 695-8
37. Pardridge WM. Neuropeptides and the blood-brain barrier. Ann Rev Physiol 1983; 45: 73-82
38. Ghersi-Egea JF, Leninger-Muller B, Suleman G, et al. Localization of drug-metabolizing enzyme activities to blood-brain interfaces and circumventricular organs. J Neurochem 1994; 62: 1089-96
39. Thea D, Barza M. Use of antibacterial agents in infections of the central nervous system. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1989; 3: 553-70
40. Davson H, Segal MB. Physiology of the CSF and blood-brain barriers. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, 1996
41. Fishman RA, Ransohoff J, Osserman EF. Factors influencing the concentration gradient of protein in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Invest 1958; 37: 1419-24
42. Weisner B, Bernhardt W. Protein fractions of lumbar, cisternal, and ventricular cerebrospinal fluid. J Neurol Sci 1978; 37: 205-14
43. Blaney SM, Daniel MJ, Harker AJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of lamivudine and BCH-189 in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid of nonhuman primates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2779-82
44. Chandrasekar PH, Rolston KVI, Smith BR, et al. Diffusion of ceftriaxone into the cerebrospinal fluid of adults. J Antimicrob Chemother 1984; 14: 427-30
45. Wellman WE, Dodge HW, Heilman FR, et al. Concentrations of antibiotics in the brain. J Lab Clin Med 1954; 43: 275-9
46. 14-labelled mannitol from serum into cerebrospinal fluid and brain. Exp Neurol 1964; 10: 264-70
47. Nau R, Zysk G, Thiel A, et al. Pharmacokinetic quantification of the exchange of drugs between blood and cerebrospinal fluid in man. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 45: 469-75
48. Shapiro WR, Young DF, Mehta PM. Methotrexate: distribution in cerebrospinal fluid after intravenous, ventricular and lumbar injections. N Engl J Med 1975; 293: 161-6
49. Fenstermacher JD, Blasberg RG, Patlak CS. Methods for quantifying the transport of drugs across brain barrier systems. Pharmacol Ther 1981; 14: 217-48
50. Sawchuk RJ, Hedaya MA. Modeling the enhanced uptake of zidovudine (AZT) into cerebrospinal fluid: I. Effect of probenecid. Pharm Res 1990; 7: 332-8
51. Mann JD, Butler AB, Johnson RN, et al. Clearance of macromolecular and particulate substances from the cerebrospinal fluid system of the rat. J Neurosurg 1979; 50: 343-8
52. Nilsson C, Stahlberg F, Thomsen C, et al. Circadian variation in human cerebrospinal fluid production measured by magnetic resonance imaging. Am J Physiol 1992; 262: R20-4
53. Nau R, Prange HW. Estimation of steady state antibiotic concentration in cerebrospinal fluid from single-dose kinetics. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 49: 407-9
54. Quagliarello V, Ma A, Stukenbrok H, et al. Ultrastructural localization of albumin transport across the cerebral microvasculature during experimental meningitis in the rat. J Exp Med 1991; 174: 657-72
55. Scheld WM, Dacey RG, Winn HR, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid outflow resistance in rabbits with experimental meningitis: alterations with penicillin and methylprednisolone. J Clin Invest 1980; 66: 243-53
56. De Vries HE, Kuiper J, de Boer AG, et al. The blood-brain barrier in neuroinflammatory diseases. Pharmacol Rev 1997; 49: 143-55
57. Reiber H, Felgenhauer K. Protein transfer at the blood cerebrospinal fluid barrier and the quantitation of the humoral immune response within the central nervous system. Clin Chim Acta 1987; 163: 319-28
58. Bitsch A, Prange H, Jansen J, et al. Häufige Probleme bei der antibiotischen Chemotherapie bakterieller ZNS-Erkran-kungen - Fallbeispiele und Vorschläge für die Initialbehand-lung. Nervenarzt 1997; 68: 331-5
59. Lee BL, Padula AM, Kimbrough RC, et al. Infectious complications with respiratory pathogens despite ciprofloxacin therapy. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 520-1
60. Wispelwey B, Dacey RG, Scheid WM. Brain abscess. In: Scheld WM, Whitley RJ, Durack DT, editors. Infections of the central nervous system. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1997: 463-93
61. Britt RH, Enzmann DR. Clinical stages of human brain abscesses an serial CT scans after contrast infusion. J Neurosurg 1983; 59: 972-89
62. Odio C, Mohs E, Sklar FH, et al. Adverse reactions to vancomycin used as prophylaxis for CSF shunt procedures. Am J Dis Child 1984; 138: 17-9
63. Schmidt T, Froula J, Täuber MG. Clarithromycin lacks bactericidal activity in cerebrospinal fluid in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 32: 627-32
64. Wallace JF, Smith RH, Garcia M, et al. Antagonism between penicillin and chloramphenicol in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemolher 1965; 5: 439-44
65. Small PM, Täuber MG, Hackbarth CJ, et al. Influence of body temperature on bacterial growth rates in experimental pneumococcal meningitis in rabbits. Infect Immun 1986; 52: 484-7
66. Scheld WM. Theoretical and practical considerations of antibiotic therapy for bacterial meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis 1985; 4: 74-80
67. Nau R, Schmidt T, Kaye K, et al. Quinolone antibiotics in therapy of experimental pneumococcal meningitis in rabbits. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 593-7
68. Nau R, Zysk G, Schmidt H, et al. Trovafloxacin delays the antibiotic-induced inflammatory response in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39: 781-8
69. Strausbaugh LJ, Sande MA. Factors influencing the therapy of experimental Proteus mirabilis meningitis in rabbits. J Infect Dis 1978; 137: 251-60
70. Tanaka M, Hoshino K, Hohmura M, et al. Effect of growth conditions on antimicrobial activity of DU-6859a and its bactericidal activity determined by the killing curve method. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 37: 1091-102
71. Jones RN, Barry AL. Antimicrobial activity of ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, desacetylcelotaxime, and cefotaxime-desacetyl-cefotaxime in the presence of human serum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987; 31: 818-20
72. Täuber MG, Doroshow CA, Hackbarth CJ, et al. Antibacterial activity of beta-lactam antibiotics in experimental meningitis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Infect Dis 1984; 149: 568-74
73. Schaad UB, McCracken GH, Loock CA, et al. Pharmacokinetics and bacteriological efficacy of moxalactam, cefotaxime, cefoperazone, and rocephin in experimental bacterial meningitis. J Infect Dis 1981; 143: 156-63
74. Vogelman B, Gudmundsson S, Leggett J, et al. Correlation of antimicrobial pharmacokinetic parameters with therapeutic efficacy in an animal model. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 831-47
75. Drusano GL, Johnson DE, Rosen M, et al. Pharmacodynamics of a fluoroquinolone antimicrobial agent in a neutropenic rat model of Pseudomonas sepsis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 483-90
76. Sande MA, Korzeniowski OM, Allegro GM, et al. Intermittent or continuous therapy of experimental meningitis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae in rabbits: preliminary observations on the post-antibiotic effect in vivo. Rev Infect Dis 1981; 3: 98-109
77. Lutsar I, Ahmed A, Friedland IR, et al. Pharmacodynamics and bactericidal activity of ceftriaxone therapy in experimental cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 2414-7
78. Trostdorf F, Reinert RR, Schmidt H, et al. RP59500 for experimental pneumococcal meningitis [poster B-78]. 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1997 Sep 28-Oct 1; Toronto
79. Reesor C, Chow AW, Kureishi A, et al. Kinetics of intraventricular vancomycin in infections of cerebrospinal fluid shunts. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 1142-3
80. Kaiser AB, McGee ZA. Aminoglycoside therapy of gram negative bacillary meningitis. N Engl J Med 1975; 293: 1215-20
81. Wen DY, Bottini AG,. Hall WA, et al. Infections in neurologic surgery. The intraventricular use of antibiotics. Neurosurg Clin North Am 1992; 3: 343-54
82. Bayston R, Hart CA, Barnicoat M. Intraventricular vancomycin in the treatment of ventriculitis associated with cerebrospinal fluid shunting and drainage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987; 50: 1419-23
83. Lee TK, Kerr RS, Adams CB. Persistent CSF leukocytosis associated with intrathecal gentamycin. Br J Neurosurg 1989; 3: 517-9
84. Scheld WM. Drug delivery to the central nervous system: general principles and relevance to therapy for infections of the central nervous system. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11 Suppl. 7: S1669-90
85. Bollensen E, Menck S, Buzanoski J, et al. Iatrogenic epidural spinal abscess. Clin Invest 1993; 71: 780-6
86. Viladrich PF, Cabellos C, Pallares R, et al. High doses of cefotaxime in treatment of adult meningitis due to Streptococcus pneumoniae with decreased susceptibilities to broad-spectrum cephalosporins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 218-20
87. Friedland IR, Klugman KP. Cerebrospinal fluid bactericidal activity against cephalosporin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in children with meningitis treated with high-dosage cefotaxime. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997; 41: 1888-91
88. Schaad UB, Wedgwood-Krucko J, Tschaeppeler H. Reversible ceftriaxone-associated biliary pseudolithiasis in children. Lancet 1988; II: 1411-3
89. Sjölin J, Eriksson N, Arneborn P, et al. Penetration of cefotaxime and desacetylcefotaxime into brain abscesses in humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 2606-10
90. Wong VK, Wright HT, Ross LA, et al. Imipenem/cilastatin treatment of bacterial meningitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991; 10: 122-5
91. Klugman KP, Dagan R and the Meropenem Meningitis Study Group. Randomized comparison of meropenem with cefotaxime for treatment of bacterial meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 1140-6
92. Saez-Llorens X, Castano E, Garcia R, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of cefepime and cefolaxime for treatment of bacterial meningitis in infants and children. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 937-40
93. Schmutzhard E, Williams KJ, Vukmirovits G, et al. A randomised comparison of meropenem with cefotaxime or ceftriaxone for the treatment of bacterial meningitis in adults. J Antimicrob Chemother 1995; 36 Suppl. A: 85-97
94. Schaad UB, Suter S, Gianella-Borradori A, et al. A comparison of ceftriaxone and cefuroxime for the treatment of bacterial meningitis in children. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 141-7
95. Viladrich PF, Gudiol F, Linares J, et al. Evaluation of vancomycin for therapy of adult pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1991; 35: 2467-72
96. McCracken GH, Mize SG. A controlled study of intrathecal antibiotic therapy in gram-negative enteric meningitis of infancy. J Pediatr 1976; 89: 66-72
97. Isaacs D, Slack MPE, Wilkinson AR, et al. Successful treatment of Pseudomonas ventriculitis with ciprofloxacin. J Antimicrob Chemother 1986; 17: 535-8
98. Millar MR, Branshy-Zachary MA, Tompkins DS, et al. Ciprofloxacin for Pseudomonas aeruginosa meningitis. Lancet 1986; 1: 1325
99. Simon C, Stille W. Antibiotika-Therapie in Klinik und Praxis. 9th ed. Stuttgart: Schattaner, 1997
100. Tarasi A, Dever LL, Tomasz A. Activity of quinupristin/ dalfopristin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro and in vivo in the rabbit model of experimental meningitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 39 Suppl. A: 121-7
101. Stuertz K, Schmidt H, Eiffert H, et al. Differential release of lipoteichoic and teichoic acids from Streptococcus pneumoniae as a result of exposure to β-lactam antibiotics, rifamycins, trovafloxacin, and quinupristin-dalfopristin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 277-81
102. Friedman CA, Lovejoy FC, Smith AL. Chloramphenicol disposition in infants and children. J Pediatr 1979; 95: 1071-7
103. Kramer PW, Griffith RS, Campbell RL. Antibiotic penetration of the brain. J Neurosurg 1969; 31: 295-302
104. Peltola H, Anttila M, Renkonen O-V. Randomized comparison of chloramphenicol, ampicillin, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone for childhood bacterial meningitis. Lancet 1989; I: 1281-7
105. Friedland IR, Klugman KP. Failure of chloramphenicol therapy in penicillin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Lancet 1992; 339: 405-8
106. Friedrich LV, White RL, Reboli AC. Pharmacodynamics of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in Listeria meningitis: a case report. Pharmacotherapy 1990; 10: 301-4
107. Kawaler B, Hof H. Murine model for therapy of listeriosis in the compromised host: IV. Cotrimoxazole. Chemotherapy 1985; 31: 366-71
108. Merle-Melet M, Dossou-Gbete L, Maurer P, et al. Is amoxicillin-cotrimoxazole the most appropriate antibiotic regimen for listeria meningoencephalitis? Review of 22 cases and the literature. J Infect 1996; 33: 79-85
109. Ingham HR, Selkon JB, Roxby CM. Bacteriological study of otogenic cerebral abscesses: chemotherapeutic role of metronidazole. BMJ 1977; 2: 991-3
110. Hoffmann HG, Förster D, Muirhead B. Metronidazol-Konzentration im Liquor bei gering entzündeten Meningen. Arzneimittel Forschung Drug Res 1984; 34: 830-1
111. Nau R, Kaye K, Sachdeva M, et al. Rifampin for experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38: 1186-9
112. Schmidt H, Zysk G, Reinert RR, et al. Rifabutin for experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Chemotherapy 1997; 43: 264-71
113. Paris MM, Hickey SM, Uscher MI, et al. Effect of dexamethasone on therapy of experimental penicillin- and cephalosporin-resislant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38: 1320-4
114. O'Keefe PT, Bayston R. Pneumococcal meningitis in a child with a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt. J Infect 1991; 22: 77-9
115. Ring JC, Cates KL, Belani KK, et al. Rifampin for CSF shunt infections caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci. J Pediatr 1979; 95: 317-9
116. Ellard GA, Humphries MJ, Gabriel M, et al. Penetration of pyrazinamide into the cerebrospinal fluid in tuberculous meningitis. BMJ 1987; 294: 284-5
117. Phuapradit P, Supmonchai K, Mokkhavesa C. The blood/cerebrospinal fluid partitioning of pyrazinamide: a study during the course of treatment of tuberculous meningitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990; 53: 81-2
118. Ellard GA, Humphries MJ, Allen BW. Cerebrospinal fluid drug concentrations and the treatment of tuberculous meningitis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 148: 650-5
119. Forgan-Smith R, Ellard GA, Newton D, et al. Pyrazinamide and other drugs in tuberculous meningitis. Lancet 1973; II: 374
120. Holdiness MR. Cerebrospinal fluid pharmacokinetics of antituberculosis drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet 1985; 10: 532-4
121. Holdiness MR. Management of tuberculous meningitis. Drugs 1990; 39: 224-33
122. Mustafa MM, Ramilo O, Mertsola J, et al. Modulation of inflammation and cachectin activity in relation to treatment of experimental Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis. J Infect Dis 1989; 160: 818-25
123. Tuomanen E, Liu H, Hengstler B, et al. The induction of meningeal inflammation by components of the pneumococcal cell wall. J Infect Dis 1985; 151: 859-68
124. Burroughs M, Rozdzinski E, Geelen S, et al. A structure-activity relationship for induction of meningeal inflammation by muramyl peptides. J Clin Invest 1993; 92: 297-302
125. Riesenfeld-Orn I, Wolpe S, Garcia-Bustos JF, et al. Production of interleukin-1 but not tumor necrosis factor by human monocytes stimulated with pneumococcal cell surface components. Infect Immun 1989; 57: 1890-3
126. Kim YS, Kennedy S, Tauber MG. Toxicity of Streptococcus pneumoniae in neurons, astrocytes, and microglia in vitro. J Infect Dis 1995; 171: 1363-8
127. Dodge P R, Swartz MN. Bacterial meningitis: a review of selected aspects. II. Special neurologic problems, postmeningitic complications and clinicopathological correlations. N Engl J Med 1965; 272: 954-60 & 1003-10
128. Syrogiannopoulos GA, Hansen EJ, Erwin AL, et al. Haemophilus influenzae Type b lipooligosaccharide induces meningeal inflammation. J Infect Dis 1988; 157: 237-44
129. Täuber MG, Shibl AM, Hackbarth CJ, et al. Antibiotic therapy, endotoxin concentration in cerebrospinal fluid, and brain edema in experimental Escherichia coli meningitis in rabbits. J Infect Dis 1987; 156: 456-62
130. Odio CM, Faingezicht I, Paris M, et al. The beneficial effects of early dexamethasone administration in infants and children with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 1525-31
131. Zysk G, Brück W, Gerber J, et al. Anti-inflammatory treatment influences neuronal apoptotic cell death in the dentate gyrus in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996; 55: 722-8
132. Cabellos C, Martinez-Lacasa J, Martos A, et al. Influence of dexamethasone on efficacy of ceftriaxone and vancomycin therapy in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2158-60
133. Kourtopoulos H, Holm SE, Norrby R. The influence of steroids on the penetration of antibiotics into brain tissue and brain abscesses. J Antimicrobial Chemother 1983; 11: 245-9
134. Friedland IR, Paris M, Ehrett S, et al. Evaluation of antimicrobial regimens for treatment of experimental penicillin- and cephalosporin-resistant pneumococcal meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemotherapy 1993; 37: 1630-6
135. Schmidt H, Dalhoff A, Stuertz K, et al. Moxifloxacin in the therapy of experimental pheumococcal memingitis. Antimircob Agents Chemother 1998; 42: 1397-401
136. Mason DJ, Power EGM, Talsania H, et al. Antibacterial action of ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 2752-8
137. Dofferhoff ASM, Nijland JH, de Vries-Hospers HG, et al. Effects of different types and combinations of antimicrobial agents on endotoxin release from Gram-negative bacteria: an in-vitro and in-vivo study. Scand J Infect Dis 1991; 23: 745-54
138. Jackson JJ, Kropp H. β-lactam antibiotic-induced release of free endotoxin: in-vitro comparison of penicillin-binding protein (PBP) 2-specific imipenem and PBP 3-specific ceftazidime. J Infect Dis 1992; 165: 1033-41
139. Prins JM, Kuijper EJ, Mevissen ML, et al. Release of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6 during antibiotic killing of Escherichia coli in whole blood: influence of antibiotic class, antibiotic concentration, and presence of septic serum. Infect Immun 1995; 63: 2236-42
140. Evans ME, Pollack M. Effect of antibiotic class and concentration on the release of lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 1336-43
141. Friedland IR, Jafari H, Ehrett S, et al. Comparison of endotoxin release by different antimicrobial agents and the effect on inflammation in experimental Escherichia coli meningitis. J Infect Dis 1993; 168: 657-62