Asthma and respiratory syncytial virus infection in infancy: Is there a link?

Clinical and Experimental Allergy

Volumn 28, Issue 8, 1998, Pages 927-935

  Wang, S Z ^a   Forsyth, K D ^a,b  

^a FLINDERS UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b FLINDERS MEDICAL CENTRE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ASTHMA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HUMAN; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; INFANT; INFANT DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL PNEUMOVIRUS; REVIEW; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS PATHOGENESIS;

ASTHMA; BRONCHIOLITIS, VIRAL; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; INFANT; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTIONS;

EID: 0031668956     PISSN: 09547894     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2222.1998.00353.x     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Phelan PD. The epidemiology of acute respiratory infections. In: Robinson MJ, Roberton DM, eds Practical Paediatrics, 3rd Edn. Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone, 1994:341.
2. Schwarze J, Hamelmann E, Bradley KL, Takeda K, Gelfand EW. Respirarory syncytial virus infection results in airway hyperresponsiveness and enhanced airway sensitization to allergen. J Clin Invest 1997; 100:226-33.
3. McConnochie KM. Bronchiolitis. Am J Dis Child 1983; 137:11-3.
4. Wohl MEB. Bronchiolitis. In: Chernick V, Kendig EL Jr, eds Disorders of the Respiratory Tract in Children, 5th Edn. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1990:360-70.
5. Hall CB, Hall WJ, Spears DM. Clinical and physiological manifestations of bronchiolitis and pneumonia. Am J Dis Child 1979; 133:798-802.
6. Anderson LJ, Heilman CA. Protective and disease-enhancing immunne responses to respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis 1995; 171:1-7.
7. Openshaw PJM. Immunity and immunopathology to respiratory syncytial virus. The mouse model. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:S59-S62.
8. Parrott RH, Kim HW, Arrobio JO et al. Epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus infection in Washington DC. II. Infection and disease with respect to age, immunologic status, race and sex. Am J Epidemiol 1973; 98:289-300.
9. McKenzie S. Respiratory tract infection. In: Campbell AGM, McIntosh N, eds Forfar and Arneil's Textbook of Paediatrics, 3rd Edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1992:633-44.
10. Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD. Risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus-associated lower airway illness in the first year of life. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 133:1135-51.
11. Rebhan AW. An outbreak of Asian influenza in a girl's camp. Can Med Assoc J 1957; 77:797-9.
12. Podosin RL, Felton WL. The clinical picture of Far-East influenza occurring at the 4th National Boy Scout Jamboree. N Engl J Med 1958; 258:778-2.
13. Pattemore PK, Johnston SL, Bardin PG. Viruses as precipitants of asthma symptoms. I Epidemiol Clin Exp Allergy 1992; 22:325-36.
14. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G et al. Community study of role of viral infection in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children. BMJ 1995; 310:1225-9.
15. Horn MEC, Brain EA, Gregg I et al. Respiratory viral infection and wheezy bronchiolitis in childhood. Thorax 1979; 34:23-8.
16. Mitchell I, Inglis JM, Simpson H. Viral infection as a precipitant of wheeze in children: combined home and hospital study. Arch Dis Child 1978; 53:106-11.
17. Jennings LC, Barnes G, Dawson KP. The association of virus with acute asthma. NZ Med J 1987; 100:488-90.
18. McIntosh K, Ellis EF, Hoffman LS et al. The association of viral and bacterial respiratory infections with exacerbations of wheezing in young asthmatic children. J Pediatr 1973; 82:578-90.
19. Rylander E, Eryksson M, Pershagen G et al. Wheezing bronchiolitis in children. Incidence, viral infections, and other risk factors in a defined population. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 1996; 7:6-11.
20. Henderson FW, Clyde WA, Collier AM et al. The etiologic and epidemiologic spectrum of bronchiolitis in pediatric practice. J Pediatr 1979; 95:183-90.
21. Nicholson KG, Kent J, Ireland DC. Respiratory viruses and exacerbations of asthma in adults. BMJ 1993; 307:982-6.
22. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G et al. The relationship between upper respiratory infections and hospital admissions for asthma: a time-trend analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:654-60.
23. Mertsola J, Ziegler T, Ruuskakanen O et al. Recurent wheezy bronchitis and viral respiratory infections. Arch Dis Child 1991; 66:124-9.
24. Horn MEC, Reed SE, Taylor P. Role of viruses and bacteria in acute wheezy bronchitis in childhood: a study of sputum. Arch Dis Child 1979; 54:587-92.
25. Mitchell I, Inglis H, Simpson H. Viral infections in wheezy bronchitis and asthma in children. Arch Dis Child 1976; 51:707-11.
26. Freeman GL. Wheezing associated with respiratory tract infections in children: the role of specific infectious agents in allergic respiratory manifestations. Clin Pediatr 1966; 5:586-92.
27. Carlsen KH, Orstavik I. Bronchopulmonary obstruction in children with respiratory virus infections. Eur J Respir Dis 1984; 65:92-8.
28. Sigurs N, Bjarnason R, Sigurbergsson F, Kjellman B, Bjorksten B. Asthma and immunoglubulin E antibodies after respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: a prospective cohort study with matched controls. Pediatrics 1995; 95:500-5.
29. Sporik R, Holgate ST, Cogswell JJ. Natural history of asthma in childhood - a birth cohort study. Arch Dis Child 1991; 66:1050-3.
30. Webb MSC, Henry RL, Milner AD. Stikes GM, Swarbrick AS. Continuing problems three and a half years after acute viral bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child 1985; 60:1064-7.
31. Sims DG, Downham MAPS, Gardner PS, Webb JKG, Weightman D. Study of 8-year-old children with a history of respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in infancy. BMJ 1978; 1:11-4.
32. Eisen AH, Bacal HL. The relationship of acute bronchiolitis to bronchial asthma: a 4-14 year follow up. Paediatrics 1963; 31:859-61.
33. Sly PD, Hibbert ME. Childhood asthma following hospitalization with acute viral bronchiolitis in infancy. Pediatr Pulmonol 1989; 7:153-8.
34. Murray M, Webb MSC, O'Callaghan C, Swarbrick AS, Milner AD. Respiratory status and allergy after bronchiolitis. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:482-7.
35. Pullan CR, Hey EN. Wheezing, asthma and pulmonary disfunction 10 years after infection with respiratory syncytial virus in infancy. BMJ 1982; 284:1665-9.
36. Barker DJP, Osmond C. Childhood respiratory infection and adult chronic bronchitis in England and Wales. BMJ 1988; 293:1271-5.
37. Barker DJ, Godfrey KM, Fall C et al. Relation of birth weight and childhood respiratory infection to adult lung and death from chronic airway obstructive airway disease. BMJ 1991; 303:671-5.
38. Wilson NM, Phagoo SB, Silverman M. Atopy, bronchial responsiveness, and symptoms in wheezy 3 year olds. Arch Dis Child 1992; 67:491-5.
39. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, et al. Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:133-8.
40. Wennergren G, Amark M, Amark K et al. Wheezing bronchitis reinvestigated at the age of 10 years. Acta Paeditr 1997; 86:351-5.
41. Welliver RC. RSV and chronic asthma. Lancet 1995; 346:789-90.
42. White DO, Fenner FJ. Paramyxoviridae. In: White DO, Fenner FJ, eds Medical Virology, 4th Edn. San Diego: Academic Press, 1994:456-74.
43. Neilson KA, Yunis EJ. Demonstration of respiratory syncytial virus in an autopsy series. Pediatr Pathol 1990; 10:491-502.
44. Aherne W, Bird T, Court SDM, Gardner PS, Mcquillin J. Pathological changes in virus infections of the lower respiratory tract in children. J Clin Pathol 1970; 23:7-18.
45. Everard ML, Swarbrick A, Wrightham M et al. Analysis of cells obtained by bronchial lavage of infants with respiratory syncytial virus infection. Arch Dis Child 1994; 71:428-32.
46. Bryson DG, Platten MF, McConnell S, McNulty MS. Unltrastructural features of lesions in bronchiolar epithelium in induced respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia of calves. Vet Pathol 1991; 28:293-9.
47. Smith PK, Vaska K, Forsyth KD. Leucocyte populations in RSV bronchiolitis (abstract). J Paediatr Child Health 1997; 33: A13.
48. Dakhama A, Vitalis TZ, Hegele RG. Persistence of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection and development of RSV-specific IgG1 response in a guinea-pig model of acute bronchiolitis. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:20-6.
49. Cannon MJ, Openshaw PJM, Askonas BA. Cytotoxic T cells clear virus but augment lung pathology in mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus. J Exp Med 1988; 168:1163-8.
50. Wang S-Z, Xu H, Wraith A et al. Neutrophils induce damage to respiratory epithelial cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Eur Respir J, in press.
51. Kimpen JLL, Garofalo R, Welliver RC, Ogra PL. Activation of human eosinophils in vitro by respiratory syncytial virus. Pediatr Res 1992; 32:160-4.
52. Garofalo R, Kimpen JLL, Welliver RC, Ogra PL. Eosinophil degranulation in the respiratory tract during naturally acuired respiratory syncytial virus infection. J Pediatr 1992; 120:28-32.
53. Welliver RC, Wong DT, Sun M et al. The development of respiratory syncytial virus-specific IgE and the release of histamine in nasopharyngeal secretions after infection. N Engl J Med 1981; 305:841-6.
54. Chonmaitree T, Lett-Brown MA, Grant JA. Respiratory viruses induce production of histamine-releasing factor by mononuclear leukocytes: a possible role in the mechanism of virus-induced asthma. J Infect Dis 1991; 164:592-4.
55. Hall CB, Walsh EE, Long CE, Schnabel KC. Immunity to and frequency of reinfection with respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis 1991; 163:693-8.
56. Isaacs D, Bangham CR, McMichael AJ. Cell-mediated cytotoxic response to respiratory syncytial virus in infants with bronchiolitis. Lancet 1987; 2:769-71.
57. Cherrie AH, Anderson K, Wertz GW, Openshaw PJM. Human cytotoxic T cells stimulated by antigen on dentritic cells recognize the N, SH, F,M, 22K, and 1b proteins of respiratory syncytial virus. J Virol 1992; 66:2102-10.
58. Smyth RL, Fletcher JN, Thomas HM. Hart CA. Immunological responses to respiratory syncytial virus infection in infancy. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76:210-4.
59. Hall CB, Powell KR, MacDonald NE et al. Respiratory syncytial viral infection in children with compromised immune function. N Engl J Med 1986; 315:77-81.
60. Graham BS, Bunton LA, Wright PF, Karzon DT. Role of T lymphocyte subsets in the pathogenesis of primary infection and rechallenge with respiratory syncytial virus in mice. J Clin Invest 1991; 88:1026-33.
61. Graham BS, Bunton LA, Roland J, Wright PF, Karzon DT. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in anti-μ-treated mice. J Virol 1991; 65:4936-42.
62. Mosmann TR, Cherwinski H, Bond MW, Giedlin MA, Coffman RL. Two types of murine helper T clone. J Immunol 1986; 136:2348-57.
63. Mosmann TR, Coffman RL. TH1 and TH2 cells: Different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annu Rev Immunol 1989; 7:145-73.
64. Fitch FW, McKisic MD, Lancki DW, Gajewski TF. Differential regulation of murine T lymphocyte subsets. Annu Rev Immunol 1993; 11:29-48.
65. Busse WW, Coffman RL, Gelfund EW, Kay AB, Rosenwasser LJ. Mechanisms of persistent airway inflammation in asthma. A role for T cells and T-cell products. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:388-93.
66. Krug N, Frew AJ. The Th2 cell in asthma: initial expectations yet to be realised. Clin Exp Allergy 1997; 27:142-50.
67. Alwan WH, Record FM, Openshaw PJM. Phenotypic and functional characterization of T cell lines specific for indivudual respiratory syncytial virus proteins. J Immunol 1993; 150:5211-8.
68. Alwan WH, Kozlowska WJ, Openshaw PJM. Distinct types of lung disease caused by functional subsets of antiviral T cells. J Exp Med 1994; 179:81-9.
69. Roman M, Calhoun WJ, Hinton KL et al. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in infants is associated with predominant Th-2-like response. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156:190-5.
70. Polmar SH, Robinson LD, Minnefor AB. Immunoglobulin E in bronchiolitis. Pediatrics 1972; 50:279-84.
71. Russi JC, Delfraro A, Borthagaray MD et al. Evaluation of immunoglobulin E-specific antibodies and viral antigens in nasopharyngeal secretions of children with respiratory syncytial virus infections. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31:819-23.
72. Rabatic S, Gagro A, Lokar-Kolbas R et al. Increase in CD23+ B cells in infants with bronchiolitis is accompanied by appearance of IgE and IgG4 antibodies specific for respiratory syncytial virus. J Infect Dis 1997; 175:32-7.
73. Renzi PM, Turgeon JP, Yang JP et al. Cellular immunity is activated and a Th-2 response is associated with early wheezing in infants after bronchiolitis. J Pediatr 1997; 130:584-93.
74. Smith PK, Hussain I, Lovejoy M, Johnston SL, Forsyth KD. Presence of pro-allergic cytokines in RSV bronchiolitis (abstract). J Paediatr Child Health 1997; 33:A49.
75. Chin J, Magoffin RL, Shearer LA et al. Field evaluation of respiratory syncytial virus vaccine and a trivalent para-influenza virus vaccine in a paediatric population. Am J Epidemiol 1969; 89:449-63.
76. Fulginiti VA, Eller JJ, Sieber OF et al. Respiratory virus immunization. I. a field trial of two inactivated respiratory virus vaccines, an aqueous trivalent parainfluenza virus vaccine and an alumprecipitated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. Am J Epidemiol 1969; 89:435-48.
77. Kim HW, Canchola GJ, Brandt CD et al. Respiratory syncytial virus disease in infants despite prior administration of antigenic inactivated vaccine. Am J Epidemiol 1969; 89:422-34.
78. Kapikian AZ, Mitchell RH, Chanock RM et al. An epidemiologic study of altered clinical reactivity to respiratory syncytial virus infection in children previously vaccinated with an inactivated RS virus vaccine. Am J Epidemiol 1969; 89:405-21.
79. McIntosh K, Fishaut JM. Immunopathological mechanisms in lower respiratory tract disease of infants due to respiratory syncytial virus. Prog Med Virol 1980; 26:94-118.
80. Murphy BR, Sotnikov AV, Lawrence LA, Banks SM, Prince GA. Enahnced pulmonary histopathology is observed in cotton rats immunized with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or purified F glycoprotein and challenged with RSV 3-6 months after immunization. Vaccine 1990; 8:497-502.
81. Connors M, Kulkarni AB, Firestone CY et al. Pulmonary histopathology induced by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) challenge of formalin-inactivated RSV-immunized BALB/c mice is abrogated by depletion of CD4+ T cells. J Virol 1992; 66:7444-51.
82. Graham BS. Pathogenesis of respiratory syncytial virus vaccine-augmented pathology. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152:563-566.
83. Groothuis JR, Simoes EA, Levin MJ et al. Prophylactic administration of respiratory syncytial virus immune globulin to high-risk infants and young children: the Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immune Globulin Study Group. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:1524-30.
84. Graham BS, Davis TH, Tang Y et al. Immunoprophylaxis and immunotherapy of respiratory syncytial virus infected-mice with respiratory syncytial virus-specific serum. Paediatr Res 1993; 34:167-72.
85. Connors M, Collins PL, Firestone CY et al. Cotton rats previously immunized with a chimeric RSV FG glycoprotein develop enhanced pulmonary pathology when infected with RSV, a phenomenon not encountered following immunization with vaccinia-RSV recombinants or RSV. Vaccine 1992; 10:475-84.
86. Alwan WH, Record FM, Openshaw PJM. CD4+ T cells clear virus but augment disease in mice infected with respiratory syncytial virus. Comparison with the effects of CD8+T cells. Clin Exp Immunol 1992; 88:527-36.
87. Graham BS, Henderson GS, Tang YW et al. Priming immunization determines T helper cytokine mRNA expression patterns in lung of mice challenged with respiratory syncytial virus. J Immunol 1993; 151:2032-40.
88. Connors M, Giese NA, Kulkarni AB et al. Enhanced pulmonary histopathology induced by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) challenge of formalin-inactivated RSV-immunized BALB/c mice is abrogated by depletion of interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-10. J Virol 1994; 68:5321-5.
89. Robison DS, Hamid Q, Sun Y et al. Predominant Th2-like bronchoalveolar lavage T-lymphocyte population in atopic asthma. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:298-304.
90. Ricci M, Rossi O, Bertoni M, Matucci A. Review: The importance of Th2-like cells in the pathogenesis of airway allergic inflammation. Clin Exp Allergy 1993; 23:360-9.
91. Umetsu DT, DeKruyff RH. Th1 and Th2 CD4 cells in human allergic diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 100:1-6.
92. Borish L, Rosewasser L. Th1/Th2 lymphocytes: Doubt some more. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1997; 99:161-4.
93. Ying S, Humbert M, Barkans J et al. Expression of IL-4 and IL-5 mRNA and protein product by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, eosinophils, and mast cells in bronchial biopsies obtained from atopic and nonatopic (intrinsic) asthma. J Immunol 1997; 158:3539-44.
94. Humbert M, Durham SR, Ying S et al. IL-4 and IL-5 mRNA and protein in bronchial biopsies from patients with atopic and nonatopic asthma: evidence against "intrinsic" asthma being a distinct immunopathologic entity. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154:1497-504.
95. Corrigan CJ. Elevated interleukin-4 secretion by T lymphocytes: a feature of atopy or of asthma? Clin Exp Allergy 1995; 25:485-7.
96. Pene J, Rousset F, Briere F et al. IgE production by normal human B cells induced by alloreactive T cell clones is mediated by IL-4 and suppressed by IFN-gamma. J Immunol 1988; 141:1218-24.
97. Finkelman FD, Katona IM, Urban JF et al. IL-4 is required to genarate and sustain in vivo IgE responses. J Immunol 1988; 141:2335-41.
98. Kopf M, Gros GL, Bachmann M et al. Disruption of the murine IL-4 gene blocks Th2 cytokine responses. Nature 1993; 362:245-8.
99. Vercelli D, Jabara HH, Arai K, Geha RS. Induction of human IgE synthesis requires interleukin 4 and T/B cell interactions involving the T cell receptor/CD3 complex and MHC class II antigens. J Exp Med 1989; 169:1295-307.
100. Del Prete G, Maggi E, Parronchi P et al. IL-4 is an essential factor for the IgE synthesis induced in vitro by human T cell clones and their supernatants. J Immunol 1988; 140:4193-8.
101. Pene J. Regulatory role of cytokines and CD23 in the human IgE antobody synthesis. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1989; 90(Suppl 1):32-40.
102. Zhou CY, Crocker IC, Koenig G, Romero FA, Townley RG. Anti-IL-4 inhibits immunoglobulin E production in murine model of atopic asthma. J Asthma 1997; 34:195-201.
103. Vercelli D, Jabara HH, Lauener RP, Geha RS. IL-4 inhibits the synthesis of IFNγ and induces the synthesis of IgE in human mixed lymphocyte cultures. J Immunol 1990; 144:570-3.
104. Swain SL, Weinberg AD, English M, Huston G. IL-4 directs the development of Th2-like helper effectors. J Immunol 1990; 145:3796-806.
105. Gross A, Ben-Sasson SZ, Pawl WE. Anti-IL-4 diminishes in vivo priming for antigen-specific IL-4-production by T cells. J Immunol 1993; 150:2112-20.
106. Coyle AJ, Le Gros G, Bertrand C et al. Interleukin-4 is required for the induction of lung Th2 mucosal immunity. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1995; 13:54-9.
107. Clutterbuck EJ, Hirst EMA, Sanderson CJ. Human interleukin 5 regulates the production of eosinophils in human bone marrow cultures: comparison and interaction with IL-1, IL-3, IL-6 and GM-CSF. Blood 1988; 73:1504-13.
108. Yamaguchi Y, Hayashi Y, Sugama Y et al. Highly purified murine interleukin-5 (IL-5) stimulates eosinophil function and prolongs in vitro survival. IL-5 as an eosinophil chemotactic factor. J Exp Med 1988; 167:1737-42.
109. Iwama T, Nagai H, Tsuruoka N, Koda A. Effect of murine recombinant interleukin-5 on bronchial reactivity in guinea-pigs. Clin Exp Allergy 1993; 23:32-8.
110. van Oosterhout AJM, Ladenius ARC, Savelkoul HFJ et al. Effect of anti-IL-5 and IL-5 on airway hyperreactivity and eosinophils in guinea-pigs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:548-52.
111. Tominaga A, Takaki S, Koyama N et al. Transgenic mice expressing a B cell growth and differentiation factor gene (interleukin 5) develop eosinophilia and autoantibody production. J Exp Med 1991; 173:429-37.
112. Lee JJ, McGarry MP, Farmer SC et al. Interleukin-5 expression in the lung epithelium of transgenic mice leads to pulmonary changes pathognomonic of asthma. J Exp Med 1997; 185:2143-56.
113. Mauser PI, Pitman A, Witt A et al. Inhibitory effect of the TRFK-5 anti-IL-5 antibody in guinea pig model of asthma. Am Rev Repir Dis 1993; 148:1623-7.
114. Coeffer E, Joseph D, Vargaftig. Role of interleukin-5 enhanced migration of eosinophils from airways of immunized guinea-pigs. Br J Pharmacol 1994; 113:749-56.
115. Das AM, Williams TJ, Lobb R, Nourshargh S. Lung eosinophilia is dependent on IL-5 and the adhesion molecules CD18 and VLA-4, in a guinea-pig model. Immunolgy 1995; 84:41-6.
116. Robinson DS, Sun Y, Bentley AM et al. Relationships among numbers of bronchoalveolar lavage cells expressing messenger ribonucleic acid for cytokines, asthma symptoms, and airway methacholine responsiveness in atopic asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993; 92:397-403.
117. Corrigan CJ, Haczku A, Gemou-Engesaeth V et al. CD4 T-lymphocyte activation in asthma is accompanied by increased serum concentration of IL-5. Effect of glucocorticoid therapy. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147:540-7.
118. Lin H, Mosmann TR, Guilbert L, Tuntipopipat S, Wegmann TG. Synthesis of T helper 2-type cytokines at the maternal-fetal interface. J Immunol 1993; 151:4562-73.
119. de-Moraes-Pinto MI, Vince GS, Flanagan BF, Hart CA, Johnson PM. Localization of IL-4 and IL-4 receptors in the human term placenta, decidua and amniochorionic membranes. Immunology 1997; 90:87-94.
120. Bright H, Turnbull T, Toms GL, Scott R. Comparison of the T helper cell response induced by respiratory syncytial virus and its fusion protein in BALB/c mice. Vaccine 1995; 13:915-22.
121. Holt PG, Sly PD. Allergic respiratory disease: strategic targets for primary prevention during childhood. Thorax 1997; 52:1-4.