A retrospective on educational planning in comparative education

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 277-313

  Farrell, Joseph P ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0031524629     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447447     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. D. N. Wilson, "Comparative and International Education: Fraternal or Siamese Twins? A Preliminary Geneology of Our Twin Fields," Comparative Education Review 38 (November 1994): 449-86.
2. R. Paulston, ed., Mapping Ways of Seeing Social and Educational Change (New York: Garland, 1996), p. xix.
3. Don Adams, "Development Education," Comparative Education Review 21 (June-October 1977): 298-301.
4. T. Husén and N. Postlethwaite, eds., International Encyclopedia of Education, 2d ed. (Oxford: Pergamon, 1994).
5. This article combines ideas developed in, and in some cases exact text from, several pieces I have written over the past few years, and it adds new material to develop a broader argument than I have heretofore constructed. See, e.g., "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Educational Policy for Effective Schools, ed. M. Hohnes et al. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1989), 8:53-70, "Planning Education: An Overview," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds., 8:4499-4510, "Educational Cooperation in the Americas: A Review," in Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in the Americas, ed. J. Puryear and J. J. Brunner (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1994), pp. 67-101, "Changing Conceptions of Educational Quality and Educational Planning under Conditions of Globalization" (paper presented at the Second Congress of Mexican Educational Researchers, Mexico City, October 1995), and a series of editorial essays I have written for the journal Curriculum Inquiry over the past 7 years. It is, if not a culmination, at least a plateau on a long intellectual journey. It should be read as the current stage of a "work in progress" within a "life in progress."
6. This article combines ideas developed in, and in some cases exact text from, several pieces I have written over the past few years, and it adds new material to develop a broader argument than I have heretofore constructed. See, e.g., "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Educational Policy for Effective Schools, ed. M. Hohnes et al. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1989), 8:53-70, "Planning Education: An Overview," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds., 8:4499-4510, "Educational Cooperation in the Americas: A Review," in Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in the Americas, ed. J. Puryear and J. J. Brunner (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1994), pp. 67-101, "Changing Conceptions of Educational Quality and Educational Planning under Conditions of Globalization" (paper presented at the Second Congress of Mexican Educational Researchers, Mexico City, October 1995), and a series of editorial essays I have written for the journal Curriculum Inquiry over the past 7 years. It is, if not a culmination, at least a plateau on a long intellectual journey. It should be read as the current stage of a "work in progress" within a "life in progress."
7. This article combines ideas developed in, and in some cases exact text from, several pieces I have written over the past few years, and it adds new material to develop a broader argument than I have heretofore constructed. See, e.g., "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Educational Policy for Effective Schools, ed. M. Hohnes et al. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1989), 8:53-70, "Planning Education: An Overview," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds., 8:4499-4510, "Educational Cooperation in the Americas: A Review," in Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in the Americas, ed. J. Puryear and J. J. Brunner (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1994), pp. 67-101, "Changing Conceptions of Educational Quality and Educational Planning under Conditions of Globalization" (paper presented at the Second Congress of Mexican Educational Researchers, Mexico City, October 1995), and a series of editorial essays I have written for the journal Curriculum Inquiry over the past 7 years. It is, if not a culmination, at least a plateau on a long intellectual journey. It should be read as the current stage of a "work in progress" within a "life in progress."
8. This article combines ideas developed in, and in some cases exact text from, several pieces I have written over the past few years, and it adds new material to develop a broader argument than I have heretofore constructed. See, e.g., "International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The View from the Developing World," in Educational Policy for Effective Schools, ed. M. Hohnes et al. (New York: Teachers College Press, 1989), 8:53-70, "Planning Education: An Overview," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds., 8:4499-4510, "Educational Cooperation in the Americas: A Review," in Education, Equity and Economic Competitiveness in the Americas, ed. J. Puryear and J. J. Brunner (Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States, 1994), pp. 67-101, "Changing Conceptions of Educational Quality and Educational Planning under Conditions of Globalization" (paper presented at the Second Congress of Mexican Educational Researchers, Mexico City, October 1995), and a series of editorial essays I have written for the journal Curriculum Inquiry over the past 7 years. It is, if not a culmination, at least a plateau on a long intellectual journey. It should be read as the current stage of a "work in progress" within a "life in progress."
9. This is the now classic "policy cycle" or "policy wheel" as presented in J. Anderson, D. Brady, and C. Bullock, Public Policy and Politics in America (Monterey, Calif: Brooks Cole, 1978). While a bit outdated, it is still a useful device for identifying and separating, at least conceptually, various broad classes of activity related to policy development.
10. This view of planning is seen very clearly in the work of George Psacharopolous. See, e.g., G. Psacharopolous, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:\neo.* or B:\*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34 (August 1990): 369-80, and "The Planning of Education: Where Do We Stand?" Comparative Education Review 30 (November 1986): 560-73.
11. This view of planning is seen very clearly in the work of George Psacharopolous. See, e.g., G. Psacharopolous, "Comparative Education: From Theory to Practice, or Are You A:\neo.* or B:\*.ist?" Comparative Education Review 34 (August 1990): 369-80, and "The Planning of Education: Where Do We Stand?" Comparative Education Review 30 (November 1986): 560-73.
12. W. L. Boyd, "Policy Analysis, Education Policy, and Management: Through a Glass Darkly," in Handbook of Research on Educational Administration, ed. N. Boyer (New York: Longman, 1988); and D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle, Knowledge for Policy; Improving Education through Research (London: Falmer, 1991).
13. W. L. Boyd, "Policy Analysis, Education Policy, and Management: Through a Glass Darkly," in Handbook of Research on Educational Administration, ed. N. Boyer (New York: Longman, 1988); and D. S. Anderson and B. J. Biddle, Knowledge for Policy; Improving Education through Research (London: Falmer, 1991).
14. J. Anyon, "The Retreat of Marxism and Socialist Feminism: Postmodern and Poststructural Theories in Education," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 115-33.
15. A. Stinchcombe, Theoretical Methods in Social History (New York: Academic Press, 1978), p. 184.
16. See, e.g., F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, "Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry," Educational Researcher 19 (May 1990): 2-14; P. Spence, Narrative Truth and Historical Truth (New York: Norton, 1984); S. Gudmundsdottir, "The Teller, the Tale, and the One Being Told: The Narrative Nature of the Research Interview," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 293-306; and M. Van Manen, "Pedagogy, Virtue and Narrative Identity in Teaching," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 135-70.
17. See, e.g., F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, "Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry," Educational Researcher 19 (May 1990): 2-14; P. Spence, Narrative Truth and Historical Truth (New York: Norton, 1984); S. Gudmundsdottir, "The Teller, the Tale, and the One Being Told: The Narrative Nature of the Research Interview," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 293-306; and M. Van Manen, "Pedagogy, Virtue and Narrative Identity in Teaching," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 135-70.
18. See, e.g., F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, "Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry," Educational Researcher 19 (May 1990): 2-14; P. Spence, Narrative Truth and Historical Truth (New York: Norton, 1984); S. Gudmundsdottir, "The Teller, the Tale, and the One Being Told: The Narrative Nature of the Research Interview," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 293-306; and M. Van Manen, "Pedagogy, Virtue and Narrative Identity in Teaching," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 135-70.
19. See, e.g., F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, "Stories of Experience and Narrative Inquiry," Educational Researcher 19 (May 1990): 2-14; P. Spence, Narrative Truth and Historical Truth (New York: Norton, 1984); S. Gudmundsdottir, "The Teller, the Tale, and the One Being Told: The Narrative Nature of the Research Interview," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 293-306; and M. Van Manen, "Pedagogy, Virtue and Narrative Identity in Teaching," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 135-70.
20. National examination systems, if their results have any "bite" at all in the lives of students and teachers, have always had this planning effect, whether explicitly intended or not. See L. D. McLean, "Examinations and Cultural Diversity," in Education for Cultural Diversity: Convergence and Divergence, ed. J. Lynch et al. (London: Falmer, 1992), pp. 427-42; and M. A. Eckstein and H. J. Noah, Secondary School Examinations: International Perspectives on Policies and Practices (New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1993).
21. National examination systems, if their results have any "bite" at all in the lives of students and teachers, have always had this planning effect, whether explicitly intended or not. See L. D. McLean, "Examinations and Cultural Diversity," in Education for Cultural Diversity: Convergence and Divergence, ed. J. Lynch et al. (London: Falmer, 1992), pp. 427-42; and M. A. Eckstein and H. J. Noah, Secondary School Examinations: International Perspectives on Policies and Practices (New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 1993).
22. I. N. Thut and D. K. Adams, Educational Patterns in Contemporary Societies (Toronto: McGraw Hill, 1964).
23. J. D. Wilson, "The Ryerson Years in Canada West," in Canadian Education: A History, ed. J. D. Wilson et al. (Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall of Canada, 1970), pp. 214-40.
24. "Manpower" planning is, for obvious reasons, no longer considered an appropriate term. I consistently use that antiquated label in this article because that is how the model and practice is generally referred to in the literature.
25. Carnoy provides an instructive, if brief, analysis of the difficulties this seemingly odd combination produced for the former Soviet Union and Eastern European nations. M. Carnoy, "Education and the State: From Adam Smith to Perestroika," in Emergent Issues in Education: Comparative Perspectives, ed. R. Arnove et al. (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992), esp. pp. 156-57.
26. S. Heyneman, Use of Educational Vouchers in the Soviet Union (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991). See also W. Mitter, M. Weiss, and V. Schaefer, eds., Recent Trends in Eastern European Education (Frankfurt: German Institute for International Education Research, 1992).
27. S. Heyneman, Use of Educational Vouchers in the Soviet Union (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991). See also W. Mitter, M. Weiss, and V. Schaefer, eds., Recent Trends in Eastern European Education (Frankfurt: German Institute for International Education Research, 1992).
28. I. Fagerlind and B. Sjosted, Review and Prospects of Educational Planning and Management in Europe (Paris: Unesco/International Congress on Planning and Management of Educational Development, 1990).
29. K. King, Aid and Education in the Developing World (Harlow: Longman, 1991); and P. W. Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning, and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).
30. K. King, Aid and Education in the Developing World (Harlow: Longman, 1991); and P. W. Jones, World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning, and Development (London: Routledge, 1992).
31. J. P. Farrell, "Conceptualizing Education and the Drive for Social Equality," in Amove et al., eds., pp. 107-22.
32. See, e.g., B. Fuller, Raising School Quality in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learning? (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); M. Lockheed and A. Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Nations: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); and K. N. Ross and L. Mahlick, Planning the Quality of Education (Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning [IIEP], 1990).
33. See, e.g., B. Fuller, Raising School Quality in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learning? (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); M. Lockheed and A. Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Nations: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); and K. N. Ross and L. Mahlick, Planning the Quality of Education (Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning [IIEP], 1990).
34. See, e.g., B. Fuller, Raising School Quality in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learning? (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1986); M. Lockheed and A. Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Nations: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); and K. N. Ross and L. Mahlick, Planning the Quality of Education (Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning [IIEP], 1990).
35. S. Shaeffer, A Framework for Collaborating for Educational Change (Paris: IIEP, 1991); F. Cepeda V., "Educatión y participación," Formas y reformas de la educación 1 (Trimestre 3, 1996): 13-14; See also papers presented at the Seminario internacional: Ventajas y riesgos de la decentralización en las reformas educativas (International seminar: Advantages and risks of decentralization in educational reforms), Managua, July 1996.
36. S. Shaeffer, A Framework for Collaborating for Educational Change (Paris: IIEP, 1991); F. Cepeda V., "Educatión y participación," Formas y reformas de la educación 1 (Trimestre 3, 1996): 13-14; See also papers presented at the Seminario internacional: Ventajas y riesgos de la decentralización en las reformas educativas (International seminar: Advantages and risks of decentralization in educational reforms), Managua, July 1996.
37. S. Shaeffer, A Framework for Collaborating for Educational Change (Paris: IIEP, 1991); F. Cepeda V., "Educatión y participación," Formas y reformas de la educación 1 (Trimestre 3, 1996): 13-14; See also papers presented at the Seminario internacional: Ventajas y riesgos de la decentralización en las reformas educativas (International seminar: Advantages and risks of decentralization in educational reforms), Managua, July 1996.
38. "What Really Happened at the World Conference in Jomtien?" NORRAG News, no. 8 (June 1990), pp. 3-53.
39. F. Caillods, ed., The Prospects far Educational Planning (Paris: HEP, 1989), p. 28 (emphasis mine).
40. This is not for want of trying. Rolland Paulston and colleagues, e.g., have been working for many years to develop a conceptual "map" of these debates. See Paulston, ed. (n. 2 above). I find this body of work helpful in clarifying my own understanding of the often subtle connections and distinctions between various schools (and subschools, and subsubschools) of thought, but (following the cartographic metaphor) the very details of such "maps" can lead us to lose sight of the major terrain features that structure and give meaning to the topographic details. My approach here is closer to Joseph Schwab's search for "commonplaces" in sorting out theoretical debates about curriculum and teaching. See F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, Teachers as Curriculum Planners: Narratives of Experience (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education [OISE] Press; New York: Teachers College Press, 1988); and J. S. Bell, "Finding the Commonplaces of Literacy," Curriculum Inquiry 23 (Spring 1993): 131-53.
41. This is not for want of trying. Rolland Paulston and colleagues, e.g., have been working for many years to develop a conceptual "map" of these debates. See Paulston, ed. (n. 2 above). I find this body of work helpful in clarifying my own understanding of the often subtle connections and distinctions between various schools (and subschools, and subsubschools) of thought, but (following the cartographic metaphor) the very details of such "maps" can lead us to lose sight of the major terrain features that structure and give meaning to the topographic details. My approach here is closer to Joseph Schwab's search for "commonplaces" in sorting out theoretical debates about curriculum and teaching. See F. M. Connelly and D. J. Clandenin, Teachers as Curriculum Planners: Narratives of Experience (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education [OISE] Press; New York: Teachers College Press, 1988); and J. S. Bell, "Finding the Commonplaces of Literacy," Curriculum Inquiry 23 (Spring 1993): 131-53.
42. N. McGinn and S. Street, "Educational Decentralization: Weak State or Strong State?" Comparative Education Review 30 (November 1986): 471-90; and N. McGinn, "Politics of Educational Planning," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds, (n. 4 above), 8:4595-4602.
43. N. McGinn and S. Street, "Educational Decentralization: Weak State or Strong State?" Comparative Education Review 30 (November 1986): 471-90; and N. McGinn, "Politics of Educational Planning," in Husén and Postlethwaite, eds, (n. 4 above), 8:4595-4602.
44. Fagerlind and Sjosted.
45. J. P. Farrell, The National Unified School in Allende's Chile: The Role of Education in the Destruction of a Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); E. Schiefelbein, "The Politics of Educational Planning: The Chilean Case," Educational Planning 1 (August 1975): 212-30; and McGinn and Street.
46. J. P. Farrell, The National Unified School in Allende's Chile: The Role of Education in the Destruction of a Revolution (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1986); E. Schiefelbein, "The Politics of Educational Planning: The Chilean Case," Educational Planning 1 (August 1975): 212-30; and McGinn and Street.
47. J. P. Farrell, "The Political Meaning of Educational Change in Allende's Chile," Curriculum Inquiry 20 (Fall 1990): 95-112.
48. J. Bryson, Strategic Planning for Public and Non-profit Organizations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988).
49. J. P. Farrell, "Narratives of Identity: The Voices of Youth," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1096): 1-12.
50. This was a criticism of the otherwise highly successful educational planning system in Chile in the late 1960s. See Farrell, The National Unified School in Allende's Chile.
51. This was the case in Ontario, Canada, in the early 1970s. See J. P. Farrell and W. Alexander, The Individualized System: Student Participation in Decision Making (Toronto: OSIE Press, 1975).
52. J. P. Farrell, "A Reaction to the Macro Planning of Education: Why It Fails, Why It Survives, and the Alternatives," Comparative Education Review 19 (May 1975): 202-9, quote 202.
53. K. Hinchcliffe, "Forecasting Manpower Requirements," in Economics of Education: Research and Studies, ed. G. Psacharopolous (Oxford: Pergamon, 1987).
54. M. Blaug, An Introduction to the Economics of Education (Baltimore: Penguin, 1970).
55. Ibid., p. 46. See also D. Windham, "The Macro Planning of Education: Why It Fails, Why It Survives, and the Alternatives," Comparative Education Review 19 (May 1975): 185-201.
56. Ibid., p. 46. See also D. Windham, "The Macro Planning of Education: Why It Fails, Why It Survives, and the Alternatives," Comparative Education Review 19 (May 1975): 185-201.
57. A. Anderson and M. J. Bowman, eds., Education and Economic Development (Chicago: Aldine, 1965).
58. P. Foster, "The Educational Policies of Post-colonial States," in Education and Development: Issues in the Analysis and Planning of Post-colonial Societies, ed. L. Anderson and D. Windham (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1982).
59. A. Mingat and J. Tan, Analytical Tools for Sector Work in Education (Washington, D.C.: World Bank/Johns Hopkins Press, 1988).
60. H. Weiler, "The Politics of Reform and Non-reform in French Education," Comparative Education Review 32 (August 1988): 251-65.
61. Mingat and Tan.
62. G. Psacharopolous and K. Hinchcliffe, "From Planning Techniques to Planning Process," in Manpower Issues in Educational Investment: A Consideration of Planning Process and Techniques, ed. G. Psacharopolous (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1983). See also H. Levin, Cost Effectiveness: A Primer (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983).
63. G. Psacharopolous and K. Hinchcliffe, "From Planning Techniques to Planning Process," in Manpower Issues in Educational Investment: A Consideration of Planning Process and Techniques, ed. G. Psacharopolous (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1983). See also H. Levin, Cost Effectiveness: A Primer (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1983).
64. World Bank, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988), Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Sector Review (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995).
65. World Bank, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1988), Priorities and Strategies for Education: A World Bank Sector Review (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995).
66. Fuller, Raising School Quality in Developing Countries (n. 21 above); and J. P. Farrell and J. Oliveira, eds., Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute Seminar Series, 1993).
67. Fuller, Raising School Quality in Developing Countries (n. 21 above); and J. P. Farrell and J. Oliveira, eds., Teachers in Developing Countries: Improving Effectiveness and Managing Costs (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Economic Development Institute Seminar Series, 1993).
68. S. Klees, "The Economics of Education: A More than Slightly Jaundiced View of Where We Are Now," in Caillods (n. 24 above); J. P. Farrell, "Educational Cooperation" (n. 5 above); J. Samoff, "limiting Horizons: The World Bank's Priorities and Strategies for Education" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Williamsburg, Va., 1996).
69. S. Klees, "The Economics of Education: A More than Slightly Jaundiced View of Where We Are Now," in Caillods (n. 24 above); J. P. Farrell, "Educational Cooperation" (n. 5 above); J. Samoff, "limiting Horizons: The World Bank's Priorities and Strategies for Education" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Williamsburg, Va., 1996).
70. S. Klees, "The Economics of Education: A More than Slightly Jaundiced View of Where We Are Now," in Caillods (n. 24 above); J. P. Farrell, "Educational Cooperation" (n. 5 above); J. Samoff, "limiting Horizons: The World Bank's Priorities and Strategies for Education" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Williamsburg, Va., 1996).
71. M. Ginsburg, ed., Understanding Educational Reform in Global Context (New York: Garland Publishing, 1991), p. 8.
72. It would probably be better to label this model "radical" political economy, or "new," or "oppositional" political economy, but that sort of labeling would likely have little resonance within the intellectual tradition that has grown in the United States. There the field of economics has generally lost its political economy bite and has become very technicist. In Canada, the European political economy tradition (of either the conservative or radical sort) remains vital.
73. M. Carnoy and H. Levin, Schooling and Work in the Democratic State (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1985).
74. P. Easton and S. Klees, "Conceptualizing the Role of Education in the Economy," in Amove, et al., eds. (n. 16 above), pp. 123-42.
75. Ibid., p. 138.
76. N. McGinn, E. Schiefelbein, and D. Warwick, "Educational Planning as Political Process: Two Case Studies from Latin America," Comparative Education Review 23 (August 1979): 218-39.
77. Lynn Davies makes a particularly strong case for this view, quoting William Hazlett: "It is essential to the triumph of reform that it should never succeed." See L. Davies, "The Management and Mismanagement of School Effectiveness," in The State and the School: An International Perspective, ed. J. Turner (London: Falmer, 1996), p. 91.
78. The argument presented briefly in the following several paragraphs is developed more fully in Farrell, "Educational Cooperation."
79. N. Machiavelli, "The Prince," in Great Boohs of the Western World, ed. R. M. Hutchins (1513; reprint, Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1952), 23:9.
80. The Escuela Nueva program is now being adapted in large or small scale in at least 10 other Latin American nations. Other examples include the Mejoramiento de la Equalidad y Calidad de la Educación (MECE) Rural program in Chile, which is now present in over 3,000 schools (see J. San Miguel B., "Programa de mejoramiento de la calidad de la educación para las escuelas multigrados rurales," Formas y reformas de la educatión 1 (Trimestre 3, 1996): 18-24; the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAG) program, which now operates in over 6,000 rural schools in Bangladesh and is currently spreading to urban schools and in adapted form into India and Pakistan (see S. C. Sarker, "The BRAC Non-formal Primary Education Centres in Bangladesh," in Partnerships and Participation in Bask Education, ed. S. Shaeffer [Paris: HEP, 1994], vol. 2, case 7; plus not-yet-published research material from three graduate students whose theses I supervise); and the Community Schools project in rural Egypt, which is expected to spread to 8,000 schools within the next 5 years (personal participant observation).
81. The Escuela Nueva program is now being adapted in large or small scale in at least 10 other Latin American nations. Other examples include the Mejoramiento de la Equalidad y Calidad de la Educación (MECE) Rural program in Chile, which is now present in over 3,000 schools (see J. San Miguel B., "Programa de mejoramiento de la calidad de la educación para las escuelas multigrados rurales," Formas y reformas de la educatión 1 (Trimestre 3, 1996): 18-24; the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAG) program, which now operates in over 6,000 rural schools in Bangladesh and is currently spreading to urban schools and in adapted form into India and Pakistan (see S. C. Sarker, "The BRAC Non-formal Primary Education Centres in Bangladesh," in Partnerships and Participation in Bask Education, ed. S. Shaeffer [Paris: HEP, 1994], vol. 2, case 7; plus not-yet-published research material from three graduate students whose theses I supervise); and the Community Schools project in rural Egypt, which is expected to spread to 8,000 schools within the next 5 years (personal participant observation).
82. San Miguel, p. 19.
83. This is hardly a new observation, although it is often forgotten. The historical record (see B. Fuller and R. Rubinson, "Does the State Expand Schooling? Review of the Evidence," in The Political Construction of Education, ed. B. Fuller and R. Rubinson [New York: Praeger, 1992], pp. 1-28) indicates dearly the alarm of many (most?) governments of the day soon after die "invention" (in Europe) of printing and the widespread dissemination of printed material and the ability to read it. Literacy unschooled, and therefore uncontrolled, was seen as dangerously subversive of the established order. In 1671 William Berkely, British governor of die Virginia Colony, was asked to report his views on education in die colony. He wrote: "I thank God there are no free schools or printing, and hope that we shall not have them for a hundred years, for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best governments. God keep us from both!" See Governor W. Berkely, "Report on Virginia Schools, 1671," in Education in the United States: A Documentary History, ed. S. Cohen (New York: Random House, 1974), 1:345.
84. This is hardly a new observation, although it is often forgotten. The historical record (see B. Fuller and R. Rubinson, "Does the State Expand Schooling? Review of the Evidence," in The Political Construction of Education, ed. B. Fuller and R. Rubinson [New York: Praeger, 1992], pp. 1-28) indicates dearly the alarm of many (most?) governments of the day soon after die "invention" (in Europe) of printing and the widespread dissemination of printed material and the ability to read it. Literacy unschooled, and therefore uncontrolled, was seen as dangerously subversive of the established order. In 1671 William Berkely, British governor of die Virginia Colony, was asked to report his views on education in die colony. He wrote: "I thank God there are no free schools or printing, and hope that we shall not have them for a hundred years, for learning has brought disobedience, and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has divulged them, and libels against the best governments. God keep us from both!" See Governor W. Berkely, "Report on Virginia Schools, 1671," in Education in the United States: A Documentary History, ed. S. Cohen (New York: Random House, 1974), 1:345.
85. A. M. Thomas, Beyond Education: A New Perspective on Society's Management of Learning (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991), pp. 14-17.
86. Personal conversation with V. Firsov, June 1990, in Budapest. I came to understand this distinction between teaching and learning on a personal level early on, though it was much later that I began to understand its broader implication. I spent 8 years of my childhood in a Roman Catholic primary school. That school (staffed entirely by nuns), the local church with which it was associated, my family, and the community in which I grew up, all worked very hard to teach a very conservative version of that religious faith. By about the age of 10 or 111 began seriously to question what I was being taught. I learned at considerable pain (corporal punishment being permitted, indeed favored, in those days) that it was unwise to express those questions and opinions openly. I became very adept at producing the "required" responses in class "discussions" and tests-even won the school's "catechism medal" in grade 8, while keeping my personal questions and views to myself. What I was learning was very different from what the educational planners thought I was being taught. It is quite evident now that that experience was and is not at all uncommon. In some bodies of "critical" theory it is referred to as "resistance," and in others as "denial." Whether one views such resistance or denial among learners (and in the educational reform context, among teachers and parents as well) favorably or unfavorably depends largely on how one views the "canon" contained in the "taught" curriculum.
87. E. T. Hall, "Unstated Features of the Cultural Context of Learning," in Learning and Development in a Global Perspective, ed. A. Thomas and E. T. Ploman (Toronto: OISE Press, 1985), pp. 157-76.
88. D. Rondinelli, J. Middleton, and A. Verspoor, Planning Educational Reforms in Developing Countries: The Contingency Approach (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1990).
89. As Hackett has noted: "Without metaphors, allegory and a thick description of the world around us there is no basis for comparative study or analysis." See P. Hackett, "Aesthetics as a Basis for Comparative Study," Comparative Education Review 32 (November 1988): 12.
90. For a very useful extended discussion of the idea of illuminative research and evaluation, see H. Richards, Evaluating Cultural Action (Ottawa: IDRC, 1983).
91. See, e.g., D. Wear, "Beyond Silences and Scripts: The Variety of Feminist Experience," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 307-20; E. Ellsworth, "Claiming the Tenured Body," in The Centre of the Web: Women and Solitude, ed. D. Wear (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), pp. 63-74; P. Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy within the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1994); and S. K. Walker, "Canonical Gestures," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 171-80.
92. See, e.g., D. Wear, "Beyond Silences and Scripts: The Variety of Feminist Experience," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 307-20; E. Ellsworth, "Claiming the Tenured Body," in The Centre of the Web: Women and Solitude, ed. D. Wear (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), pp. 63-74; P. Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy within the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1994); and S. K. Walker, "Canonical Gestures," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 171-80.
93. See, e.g., D. Wear, "Beyond Silences and Scripts: The Variety of Feminist Experience," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 307-20; E. Ellsworth, "Claiming the Tenured Body," in The Centre of the Web: Women and Solitude, ed. D. Wear (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), pp. 63-74; P. Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy within the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1994); and S. K. Walker, "Canonical Gestures," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 171-80.
94. See, e.g., D. Wear, "Beyond Silences and Scripts: The Variety of Feminist Experience," Curriculum Inquiry 26 (Fall 1996): 307-20; E. Ellsworth, "Claiming the Tenured Body," in The Centre of the Web: Women and Solitude, ed. D. Wear (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993), pp. 63-74; P. Lather, Getting Smart: Feminist Research and Pedagogy within the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1994); and S. K. Walker, "Canonical Gestures," Curriculum Inquiry 24 (Summer 1994): 171-80.
95. Schiefelbein, "The Politics of Educational Planning" (n. 28 above).
96. J. P. Farrell and E. Schiefelbein, Eight Years of Their Lives: Through Schooling to the Labour Market in Chile (Ottawa: IDRC, 1981), and "Education and Status Attainment in Chile: A Comparative Challenge to the Wisconsin Model of Occupational Status Attainment," Comparative Education Review 29 (November 1985): 490-506.
97. J. P. Farrell and E. Schiefelbein, Eight Years of Their Lives: Through Schooling to the Labour Market in Chile (Ottawa: IDRC, 1981), and "Education and Status Attainment in Chile: A Comparative Challenge to the Wisconsin Model of Occupational Status Attainment," Comparative Education Review 29 (November 1985): 490-506.
98. V. Colbert, C. Chiappe, and J. Arboleda, The New School Program: More and Better Primary Education for Children in Rural Areas (New York: Unicef; Bogota: Ministry of Education, Colombia, 1990); E. Schiefelbein, In Search of the School of the 21st Century: Is Colombia's Escuela Nueva the Right Pathfinder? (Santiago: Unesco Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991); and J. Arboleda, "Participation and Partnership in the Colombian Escuela Nueva," in Shaeffer, ed. (n. 56 above), vol. 2, case 5.
99. V. Colbert, C. Chiappe, and J. Arboleda, The New School Program: More and Better Primary Education for Children in Rural Areas (New York: Unicef; Bogota: Ministry of Education, Colombia, 1990); E. Schiefelbein, In Search of the School of the 21st Century: Is Colombia's Escuela Nueva the Right Pathfinder? (Santiago: Unesco Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991); and J. Arboleda, "Participation and Partnership in the Colombian Escuela Nueva," in Shaeffer, ed. (n. 56 above), vol. 2, case 5.
100. V. Colbert, C. Chiappe, and J. Arboleda, The New School Program: More and Better Primary Education for Children in Rural Areas (New York: Unicef; Bogota: Ministry of Education, Colombia, 1990); E. Schiefelbein, In Search of the School of the 21st Century: Is Colombia's Escuela Nueva the Right Pathfinder? (Santiago: Unesco Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1991); and J. Arboleda, "Participation and Partnership in the Colombian Escuela Nueva," in Shaeffer, ed. (n. 56 above), vol. 2, case 5.
101. A. de Guzman, "The Philippines: A Textbook Case," in Textbooks in the Developing World: Educational and Economic Choices, ed. J. P. Farrell and S. Heyneman (Washington, D.C.: World Bank/Economic Development Institute, 1989), pp. 141-72.
102. This brief account is based on personal "participant observation" and conversations with many of the key actors.
103. Carnoy (n. 16 above).
104. Obviously these observations apply mainly to that form of educational planning that occurs at the level of the state, and not directly to local or institutional planning. However, almost everywhere local or institutional planning is regulated and constrained by state-level planning.
105. Innis's work was in this respect fundamental to Marshall McLuhan's later work. See H. Innis, Empire and Communication (London: Oxford University Press, 1950). In his earlier work on the political economy of Canada, as a natural-resource-dependent state in a quasicolonial relationship with Europe, Innis developed an analysis that was a precursor of what later came to be labeled "dependency theory." See his major books: The Fur Trade in Canada (1930), Settlement and the Mining Frontier (1936), and The Cod Fisheries (1940), all published by the University of Toronto Press.
106. D. Elkins, Beyond Sovereignty: Territory and Political Economy in the Twenty-First Century (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995). For a fuller discussion of the erosion of the contemporary nation-state as a consequence of these new modes of communication and evidence of how difficult it is to predict what new forms of political/economic/social/cultural organization may emerge, see the papers presented at an international conference on "The Nation-State in a Global/Information Era," held at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, the John Deutsch Institute, November 1996.
107. Information Highway Advisory Council, Connection Community Content: The Challenge of the Information Highway (final report to the Government of Canada, September 1995).
108. As Samuel P. Huntingdon has recently argued, already "much of the world is becoming more modern and less Western" (emphasis added). See S. P. Huntingdon, "Bye Bye Miss American Pie," Globe and Mail (Toronto) (November 9, 1966), p. DS; this extract is from The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). It is already very evident even to this novice "web-surfer" that an extraordinary variety of voices are newly visible on the screen, from even very remote areas of the world. For a particularly interesting example, see the 30-day international "electronic seminar" or "think tank," held in October 1996 on education and technology, where new voices from Africa, Asia, and Latin America were very powerfully present, archived at (www.worldbank.org/html.fpd.technet).
109. As Samuel P. Huntingdon has recently argued, already "much of the world is becoming more modern and less Western" (emphasis added). See S. P. Huntingdon, "Bye Bye Miss American Pie," Globe and Mail (Toronto) (November 9, 1966), p. DS; this extract is from The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996). It is already very evident even to this novice "web-surfer" that an extraordinary variety of voices are newly visible on the screen, from even very remote areas of the world. For a particularly interesting example, see the 30-day international "electronic seminar" or "think tank," held in October 1996 on education and technology, where new voices from Africa, Asia, and Latin America were very powerfully present, archived at (www.worldbank.org/html.fpd.technet).
110. B. Fuller, Crowing Up Modern: The Western State Builds Third World Schools (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1991).
111. Under these conditions, formal national political contests can be seen increasingly as rather like a group of family members arguing over the terms of a will, only to discover that the decedent's estate is nearly bankrupt. An implicit recognition of this condition likely underlies much of the cynicism about, frustration with, and alienation from the formal institutions of politics one observes in most "Western democracies." Deep down we "know" that the governments we elect cannot actually do very much about the problems, that most trouble us. On this question, see also J. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987).
112. Although the fates of the former Czechoslovakia, Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia - dissolved peacefully, turbulently, and very bloodily, respectively - should give pause to anyone who imagines that their own nation-state is forever peacefully integral. As a Canadian I cannot but be very sensitive to this issue.
113. See, e.g., Unesco/Commissión Económica Para America Latina (CEPAL) Education and Knowledge: Basic Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: Unesco-CEPAL, 1993); T. Miklos et al., eds., Mexico y Francia ante los retos educatives del nuevo milenio (Mexico City: Secretaria de Educacíon Pública, 1994); and the following papers: A. R. Riddell, "Globalization, Decentralization, Privatization: Emasculation or Opportunity for Educational Planning?"; B. Avalos, "Education for Global/Regional Competitiveness: Chilean Policies and Reforms in Secondary Education"; L. Ratinoff, "Global Insecurity and Education in the Culture of Globalization" (papers presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Boston, March 1995).
114. See, e.g., Unesco/Commissión Económica Para America Latina (CEPAL) Education and Knowledge: Basic Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: Unesco-CEPAL, 1993); T. Miklos et al., eds., Mexico y Francia ante los retos educatives del nuevo milenio (Mexico City: Secretaria de Educacíon Pública, 1994); and the following papers: A. R. Riddell, "Globalization, Decentralization, Privatization: Emasculation or Opportunity for Educational Planning?"; B. Avalos, "Education for Global/Regional Competitiveness: Chilean Policies and Reforms in Secondary Education"; L. Ratinoff, "Global Insecurity and Education in the Culture of Globalization" (papers presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Boston, March 1995).
115. See, e.g., Unesco/Commissión Económica Para America Latina (CEPAL) Education and Knowledge: Basic Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: Unesco-CEPAL, 1993); T. Miklos et al., eds., Mexico y Francia ante los retos educatives del nuevo milenio (Mexico City: Secretaria de Educacíon Pública, 1994); and the following papers: A. R. Riddell, "Globalization, Decentralization, Privatization: Emasculation or Opportunity for Educational Planning?"; B. Avalos, "Education for Global/Regional Competitiveness: Chilean Policies and Reforms in Secondary Education"; L. Ratinoff, "Global Insecurity and Education in the Culture of Globalization" (papers presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Boston, March 1995).
116. See, e.g., Unesco/Commissión Económica Para America Latina (CEPAL) Education and Knowledge: Basic Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: Unesco-CEPAL, 1993); T. Miklos et al., eds., Mexico y Francia ante los retos educatives del nuevo milenio (Mexico City: Secretaria de Educacíon Pública, 1994); and the following papers: A. R. Riddell, "Globalization, Decentralization, Privatization: Emasculation or Opportunity for Educational Planning?"; B. Avalos, "Education for Global/Regional Competitiveness: Chilean Policies and Reforms in Secondary Education"; L. Ratinoff, "Global Insecurity and Education in the Culture of Globalization" (papers presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Boston, March 1995).
117. See, e.g., Unesco/Commissión Económica Para America Latina (CEPAL) Education and Knowledge: Basic Pillars of Changing Production Patterns with Social Equity (Santiago: Unesco-CEPAL, 1993); T. Miklos et al., eds., Mexico y Francia ante los retos educatives del nuevo milenio (Mexico City: Secretaria de Educacíon Pública, 1994); and the following papers: A. R. Riddell, "Globalization, Decentralization, Privatization: Emasculation or Opportunity for Educational Planning?"; B. Avalos, "Education for Global/Regional Competitiveness: Chilean Policies and Reforms in Secondary Education"; L. Ratinoff, "Global Insecurity and Education in the Culture of Globalization" (papers presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society, Boston, March 1995).
118. M. Ginsburg et al., "Educational Reform: Social Struggle, the State, and the World Economic System," in Ginsburg, ed. (n. 47 above), pp. 12-20.
119. Riddell, pp. 25-26.