Value orientations in military academies: A thirteen country study

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 7-32

  Soeters, Joseph L ^a  

^a Royal Netherlands' Military Academy   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031505030     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9702400101     Document Type: Article

References (59)

1. Similar efforts to collaborate internationally may also be observed in other occupations, such as the police. See, e.g., J. Soeters, G.H. Hofstede, and M. van Twuyver, "Culture's Consequences and the Police: Cross-border Cooperation between Police Forces in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands," Policing and Society 5 (1995): 1-14.
2. See, for instance, S.B. Sitkin, "Learning through Failure: The Strategy of Small Losses," in Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. B.M. Shaw and L.L. Cummings, 1992 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1992), 231-266; R. Olie, "Shades of Culture and Institutions in International Mergers," Organization Studies 15 (1994): 381-405; R. Olie, European Transnational Mergers, Ph.D. diss., University of Limburg, Maastricht, 1996.
3. See, for instance, S.B. Sitkin, "Learning through Failure: The Strategy of Small Losses," in Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. B.M. Shaw and L.L. Cummings, 1992 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1992), 231-266; R. Olie, "Shades of Culture and Institutions in International Mergers," Organization Studies 15 (1994): 381-405; R. Olie, European Transnational Mergers, Ph.D. diss., University of Limburg, Maastricht, 1996.
4. See, for instance, S.B. Sitkin, "Learning through Failure: The Strategy of Small Losses," in Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. B.M. Shaw and L.L. Cummings, 1992 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1992), 231-266; R. Olie, "Shades of Culture and Institutions in International Mergers," Organization Studies 15 (1994): 381-405; R. Olie, European Transnational Mergers, Ph.D. diss., University of Limburg, Maastricht, 1996.
5. See, e.g., R. Whitley, ed., European Business Systems. Firms and Markets in their National Contexts (London: Sage, 1992).
6. A short bibliography of Hofstede's major work on national cultures is as follows: G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G.H. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw Hill, 1991); G.H. Hofstede, "Images of Europe," The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences 30 (1994): 63-82; G .H. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16, 4 (1988): 4-21. The specific operationalization and computational formulas used in this study are derived from G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide for Values Survey Module (Arnhem: Iric, 1982) and from the extended and improved edition, Maastricht, Iric, 1994.
7. A short bibliography of Hofstede's major work on national cultures is as follows: G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G.H. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw Hill, 1991); G.H. Hofstede, "Images of Europe," The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences 30 (1994): 63-82; G .H. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16, 4 (1988): 4-21. The specific operationalization and computational formulas used in this study are derived from G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide for Values Survey Module (Arnhem: Iric, 1982) and from the extended and improved edition, Maastricht, Iric, 1994.
8. A short bibliography of Hofstede's major work on national cultures is as follows: G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G.H. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw Hill, 1991); G.H. Hofstede, "Images of Europe," The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences 30 (1994): 63-82; G .H. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16, 4 (1988): 4-21. The specific operationalization and computational formulas used in this study are derived from G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide for Values Survey Module (Arnhem: Iric, 1982) and from the extended and improved edition, Maastricht, Iric, 1994.
9. A short bibliography of Hofstede's major work on national cultures is as follows: G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G.H. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw Hill, 1991); G.H. Hofstede, "Images of Europe," The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences 30 (1994): 63-82; G .H. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16, 4 (1988): 4-21. The specific operationalization and computational formulas used in this study are derived from G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide for Values Survey Module (Arnhem: Iric, 1982) and from the extended and improved edition, Maastricht, Iric, 1994.
10. A short bibliography of Hofstede's major work on national cultures is as follows: G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); G.H. Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (London: McGraw Hill, 1991); G.H. Hofstede, "Images of Europe," The Netherlands' Journal of Social Sciences 30 (1994): 63-82; G .H. Hofstede and M.H. Bond, "The Confucius Connection: From Cultural Roots to Economic Growth," Organizational Dynamics 16, 4 (1988): 4-21. The specific operationalization and computational formulas used in this study are derived from G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide for Values Survey Module (Arnhem: Iric, 1982) and from the extended and improved edition, Maastricht, Iric, 1994.
11. See, especially, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations; Hofstede and Bond, Confucius. For a specific application of Hofstede's insights with regard to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia see Hofstede, "Images," The Netherlands; Journal of Social Sciences (1994) and J. Soeters, "Culture and Conflict: An Application of Hofstede's Theory to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," Peace and Conflict: The Journal of Peace Psychology 2 (1996): 233-244.
12. See, especially, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations; Hofstede and Bond, Confucius. For a specific application of Hofstede's insights with regard to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia see Hofstede, "Images," The Netherlands; Journal of Social Sciences (1994) and J. Soeters, "Culture and Conflict: An Application of Hofstede's Theory to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," Peace and Conflict: The Journal of Peace Psychology 2 (1996): 233-244.
13. See, especially, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations; Hofstede and Bond, Confucius. For a specific application of Hofstede's insights with regard to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia see Hofstede, "Images," The Netherlands; Journal of Social Sciences (1994) and J. Soeters, "Culture and Conflict: An Application of Hofstede's Theory to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," Peace and Conflict: The Journal of Peace Psychology 2 (1996): 233-244.
14. See, especially, Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations; Hofstede and Bond, Confucius. For a specific application of Hofstede's insights with regard to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia see Hofstede, "Images," The Netherlands; Journal of Social Sciences (1994) and J. Soeters, "Culture and Conflict: An Application of Hofstede's Theory to the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," Peace and Conflict: The Journal of Peace Psychology 2 (1996): 233-244.
15. M. Hoppe, A Comparative Study of Country Elites: International Differences in Work-related Values and Learning and Their Implications for Management Training and Development, Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1990.
16. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
17. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
18. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
19. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
20. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
21. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
22. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
23. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
24. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
25. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
26. The major publications on this model are as follows: Charles Moskos, "From Institution to Occupation: Trends in Military Organization," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 41-50; Charles Moskos, "Institutional/Occupational Trends in Armed Forces: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 377-382; Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More Than Just a Job? (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1988); Charles Moskos and James S. Burk, "The Postmodern Military" in The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Forces to a Turbulent World, ed. James S. Burk (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994), 141-162; Morris Janowitz, "From Institutional to Occupational: The Need for Conceptual Clarity," Armed Forces & Society 4 (1977): 51-54; Charles A. Cotton, "Institutional and Occupational Values in Canada's Army," Armed Forces & Society 8 (1981): 99-110; David R. Segal, and H. Y. Young, "Institutional and Occupational Models of the Army in the Career Force: Implications of Definition of Mission and Perceptions of Combat Readiness," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 12 (1984): 243-256; David R. Segal, "Measuring the Institutional/Occupational Change Thesis," Armed Forces & Society 12 (1986): 351-376; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and T. R. Manley, "An Empirical Examination of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: Independence, Demographic Differences and Associated Attitudes," Armed Forces & Society 6 (1980): 257-269; M. J. Stahl, C. W. McNichols, and R. T. Manley, "A Longitudinal Test of the Moskos Institution-Occupation Model: A Three-Year Increase in Occupational Scores," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 9 (1981): 43-47; and H. Sörensen, "New Perspectives on the Military Profession: The I/O-model and Esprit de Corps Reevaluated," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 599-618.
27. For a discussion and empirical illustration of internal versus external labor market dynamics, see, e.g., J. Soeters, and R. Schwan, "Towards an Empirical Assessment of Internal Labor Market Configurations," International Journal of Human Resource Management 1 (1990): 271-287.
28. Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More than Just a Job? Especially B. Boëne, "France," 191-210. See also Sörensen, "New Perspectives. "
29. Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More than Just a Job? Especially B. Boëne, "France," 191-210. See also Sörensen, "New Perspectives. "
30. Charles Moskos and F.R. Wood, eds., The Military: More than Just a Job? Especially B. Boëne, "France," 191-210. See also Sörensen, "New Perspectives. "
31. M. J. Stahl et al., "An Empirical Examination," 1980. However, the question whether institution and occupation are two independent dimensions or two opposite sides of one dimension seems to be influenced by the method of operationalization. In the present study institution and occupation are considered as two opposite sides of one dimension.
32. See J. Soeters, "Excellent Companies as Social Movements," Journal of Management Studies 23 (1986): 299-312; H. Flam, "Fear, Loyalty and Greedy Organizations," in S. Fineman (ed.), Emotion in Organizations, ed. S. Fineman (London: Sage, 1993), 58-75; and Mady Wechsler Segal, "The Military and the Family as Greedy Institutions," Armed Forces & Society 13 (1986): 9-38.
33. See J. Soeters, "Excellent Companies as Social Movements," Journal of Management Studies 23 (1986): 299-312; H. Flam, "Fear, Loyalty and Greedy Organizations," in S. Fineman (ed.), Emotion in Organizations, ed. S. Fineman (London: Sage, 1993), 58-75; and Mady Wechsler Segal, "The Military and the Family as Greedy Institutions," Armed Forces & Society 13 (1986): 9-38.
34. See J. Soeters, "Excellent Companies as Social Movements," Journal of Management Studies 23 (1986): 299-312; H. Flam, "Fear, Loyalty and Greedy Organizations," in S. Fineman (ed.), Emotion in Organizations, ed. S. Fineman (London: Sage, 1993), 58-75; and Mady Wechsler Segal, "The Military and the Family as Greedy Institutions," Armed Forces & Society 13 (1986): 9-38.
35. In Moskos and Wood (1988, p. 280) a distinction is made between "values," dominating in the institutional attitude, and "calculation," dominating in the occupational attitude. In Hofstede's approach all attitudes rely on values, be they social, relational, or idealistic (institutional) or individualistic, calculative, and materialistic (occupational).
36. J.Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy. What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, New York, 1989), 163-164.
37. G.H. Hofstede, Scoring Guide.
38. This second item of the Power Distance Index may be somewhat influenced by nation-specific obligations as to the period in which to serve the armed forces upon graduation at the military academy. However, the results show that in ten out of thirteen academies all response categories are marked (including "two years at the most"). If student-officers want to leave the armed forces on relatively short notice at all costs, in virtually all countries in this study there are opportunities to do so.
39. M. Hoppe, Country Elites.
40. M. J. Stahl et al., A Longitudinal Test.
41. See G.H. Hofstede, Culture's Consequences and Cultures and Organizations, 1980 and 1991, respectively.
42. See G.H. Hofstede, "Cultural Constraints in Management Theories," Academy of Management Executive 7 (1993): 81-94.
43. M. Hoppe, Country Elites; G.H. Hofstede, Images of Europe.
44. M. Hoppe, Country Elites; G.H. Hofstede, Images of Europe.
45. G. Stevens, F.M. Rosa Jr. and S. Gardner, "Military Academies as Instruments of Value Change," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 473-484. For the dynamics between (self-)selection versus socialization in the civilian sector, see J. Soeters and H. Schreuder, "The Interaction between National and Organizational Cultures in Accounting Firms," Accounting, Organizations and Society 13 (1988): 75-85.
46. G. Stevens, F.M. Rosa Jr. and S. Gardner, "Military Academies as Instruments of Value Change," Armed Forces & Society 20 (1994): 473-484. For the dynamics between (self-)selection versus socialization in the civilian sector, see J. Soeters and H. Schreuder, "The Interaction between National and Organizational Cultures in Accounting Firms," Accounting, Organizations and Society 13 (1988): 75-85.
47. H. Smith, "The Dynamics of Social Change and the Australian Defence Force," Armed Forces & Society 21 (1995): 531-551; G. Caforio and M. Nuciari, How Italian Military Educate Its Officers. Paper presented at the Inter-University Seminar's biennial conference, Baltimore, 1995. The latter paper speaks of a lesser degree of pragmatic professionalism and a higher degree of radical professionalism among (Italian) student officers as compared to older officers.
48. H. Smith, "The Dynamics of Social Change and the Australian Defence Force," Armed Forces & Society 21 (1995): 531-551; G. Caforio and M. Nuciari, How Italian Military Educate Its Officers. Paper presented at the Inter-University Seminar's biennial conference, Baltimore, 1995. The latter paper speaks of a lesser degree of pragmatic professionalism and a higher degree of radical professionalism among (Italian) student officers as compared to older officers.
49. E.g., B. Boëne, in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More that Just a Job?, and B. Boëne, "How Unique Should the Military Be?" European Journal of Sociology 31 (1990): 3-59. Another extension of this type of research could be based on the development of measurements of other aspects of military life such as the inclination towards the use of violence.
50. E.g., B. Boëne, in Moskos and Wood, The Military: More that Just a Job?, and B. Boëne, "How Unique Should the Military Be?" European Journal of Sociology 31 (1990): 3-59. Another extension of this type of research could be based on the development of measurements of other aspects of military life such as the inclination towards the use of violence.
51. B. Boëne, How Unique?
52. J. Soeters, Excellent Companies; G. Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society (Thousand Oaks: Pine Force Press, 1993).
53. J. Soeters, Excellent Companies; G. Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society (Thousand Oaks: Pine Force Press, 1993).
54. E.g., Soeters, J., "Changing From a Draft Army to an All Volunteer Force: Managerial Dilemmas, Challenges and Inevitabilities," in Democratic and Civil Control over Military Forces, ed. D. Herold and E. Gilman (Rome: NDC Publishers), 69-82; also W. J. Scott and S. Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military. Lessons, Concerns and Contrasts, (New York: de Gruyter, 1994).
55. E.g., Soeters, J., "Changing From a Draft Army to an All Volunteer Force: Managerial Dilemmas, Challenges and Inevitabilities," in Democratic and Civil Control over Military Forces, ed. D. Herold and E. Gilman (Rome: NDC Publishers), 69-82; also W. J. Scott and S. Carson Stanley, eds., Gays and Lesbians in the Military. Lessons, Concerns and Contrasts, (New York: de Gruyter, 1994).
56. Christopher Dandeker, "New Times for the Military: Some Sociological Remarks on the Changing Role and Structure of the Armed Forces of the Advanced Societies," British Journal of Sociology 45 (1994): 637-654.
57. Nationally mixed groups may create dynamics and opportunities that are in essence not very different from what happens in racially mixed groups. See for the latter, in the military, Charles Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (1993): 83-94; and, in the civilian sector: T. H. Cox, S. Lobel, and P. McLeod, "Effects of Ethnic Group Cultural Differences on Cooperative and Competitive Behavior on a Task Group," Academy of Management Journal 34 (1991): 827-847.
58. Nationally mixed groups may create dynamics and opportunities that are in essence not very different from what happens in racially mixed groups. See for the latter, in the military, Charles Moskos, "From Citizens' Army to Social Laboratory," Wilson Quarterly 17 (1993): 83-94; and, in the civilian sector: T. H. Cox, S. Lobel, and P. McLeod, "Effects of Ethnic Group Cultural Differences on Cooperative and Competitive Behavior on a Task Group," Academy of Management Journal 34 (1991): 827-847.
59. For an elaboration of these managerial "recipes," see J. Soeters et al., Culture's Consequences and the Police, 1994.