Constitutional development in Central Asia

Central Asian Survey

Volumn 16, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 301-320

  Anderson, John ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN; NATIONAL POLITICS; POLITICAL SYSTEM;

KAZAKHSTAN; KYRGYZ REPUBLIC;

EID: 0031411550     PISSN: 02634937     EISSN: None     Source Type: Trade Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/02634939708400993     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. I. Duchacek, Power Maps - Comparative Politics of Constitutions (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 1973), p 10.
2. Early constitutional developments are dealt with in chapters by Olcott and Huskey in I. Bremmer and R. Taras, eds, Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp 313-330 and 398-418.
3. Cf. J. Linz and A. Valenzuela, eds, The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Vol 1: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); M. Shugart and J. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); G. Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan, 1994); A. Lijphart and C. Waisman, eds, Institutional Design in New Democracies (Boulder: Westview, 1996).
4. Cf. J. Linz and A. Valenzuela, eds, The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Vol 1: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); M. Shugart and J. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); G. Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan, 1994); A. Lijphart and C. Waisman, eds, Institutional Design in New Democracies (Boulder: Westview, 1996).
5. Cf. J. Linz and A. Valenzuela, eds, The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Vol 1: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); M. Shugart and J. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); G. Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan, 1994); A. Lijphart and C. Waisman, eds, Institutional Design in New Democracies (Boulder: Westview, 1996).
6. Cf. J. Linz and A. Valenzuela, eds, The Failure of Presidential Democracy, Vol 1: Comparative Perspectives (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); M. Shugart and J. Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); G. Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (London: Macmillan, 1994); A. Lijphart and C. Waisman, eds, Institutional Design in New Democracies (Boulder: Westview, 1996).
7. D. Castiglione, 'The political theory of the constitution', in R. Bellamy and D. Castiglione, Constitutionalism in Transformation: European and Theoretical Perspectives, a special issue of Political Studies, Vol 44, No 3, 1996, p 417.
8. As described by Kh. Ataev, chairman of the republic's Supreme Court in Turkmenskaya iskra, 21.3.1992.
9. Which can be found in Turkmenskaya iskra, 19.5.1992.
10. Izvestiya, 9.12.1992.
11. See the interview with Fedotova in Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 10.4.1992.
12. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 2.6.1992.
13. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29.8.1992.
14. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29.10.1992.
15. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29.10.1992 and Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30.1.1993.
16. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29.10.1992 and Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30.1.1993.
17. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (SWB) SU/1570, B/8, 22.12.1992.
18. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 14.4.1993.
19. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 7.5.1993; the text can be found in the same paper of 21.5.1993.
20. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 11.6.1994 and 23.6.1994.
21. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 9.11.1994; see the critique offered by Human Rights Watch Helsinki in Tajikistan - Human Rights on the Eve of the Presidential Elections (New York, October 1994).
22. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 9.11.1994; see the critique offered by Human Rights Watch Helsinki in Tajikistan - Human Rights on the Eve of the Presidential Elections (New York, October 1994).
23. Although one contributor to the Turkmen debate suggested that given the draft's reference to 'we the people of Turkmenistan', the constitution should be approved in a popular referendum rather than by parliament, Turkmenskaya iskra, 1.4.1992.
24. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 26.2.1993.
25. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 23.2.1993; the same author criticized the tendency to replace the word 'soviet' with 'kenesh', suggesting that after 70 years the former word had in fact gained meaning in the Kyrgyz language.
26. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 26.2.1993.
27. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 31.7.1992.
28. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 2.6.1992; cf. Niyazov's comments in Moskovskie novosti, 31.1.1993.
29. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 2.6.1992; cf. Niyazov's comments in Moskovskie novosti, 31.1.1993.
30. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 7.4.1993.
31. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 4.7.1992.
32. Turkmenskaya iskra, 4.4.1992 and 14.4.1992.
33. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 8.7.1992; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 8.12.1992; for similar suggestions from Turkmenistan see Turkmenskaya iskra, 16.4.1992.
34. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 8.7.1992; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 8.12.1992; for similar suggestions from Turkmenistan see Turkmenskaya iskra, 16.4.1992.
35. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 8.7.1992; Nezavisimaya gazeta, 8.12.1992; for similar suggestions from Turkmenistan see Turkmenskaya iskra, 16.4.1992.
36. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 15.8.1992.
37. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 12.9.1992.
38. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 12.2.1993.
39. See points on this question raised in Turkmenskaya iskra, 26.3.1992, 4.4.1992 and 14.4.1992.
40. Slovo Kyrgyzstana 24.2.1993.
41. Turkmenskaya iskra 4.4.1992 and Kazakhstanskaya pravda 28.7.1992.
42. Turkmenskaya iskra, 19.5.1992.
43. For more detail see J. Anderson, 'Authoritarian political development in Central Asia: the case of Turkmenistan', Central Asian Survey, Vol 14, No 4, 1995, pp 509-527.
44. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30.1.1993; in the French system an 'irresponsible' president has to work with a prime minister who requires the confidence of the assembly, whereas in Kazakhstan parliamentary votes of no-confidence in the prime minister only led to his resignation when it suited the president; moreover, in France presidents remain constrained by a democratic political culture which permits high-handed rhetoric by the chief executive but limits their real freedom of action. On the distinction between presidentialism and premier-presidentialism see Shugart and Carey, Presidents and Assemblies, pp 19-24.
45. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 30.1.1993; in the French system an 'irresponsible' president has to work with a prime minister who requires the confidence of the assembly, whereas in Kazakhstan parliamentary votes of no-confidence in the prime minister only led to his resignation when it suited the president; moreover, in France presidents remain constrained by a democratic political culture which permits high-handed rhetoric by the chief executive but limits their real freedom of action. On the distinction between presidentialism and premier-presidentialism see Shugart and Carey, Presidents and Assemblies, pp 19-24.
46. Turkmenskaya iskra, 16.4.1992.
47. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 10.2.1993; on 21 February 1995 the same paper reported that around 6 per cent of Russians knew Kyrgyz.
48. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 25.7.1992; according to a later report some 75 per cent of Kazakhs were fluent in Russian, but only 1 per cent of Russians knew Kazakh.
49. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 12.2.1993.
50. Turkmenskaya iskra, 6.4.1992; Slovo kyrgyzstana, 10.3.1993.
51. Turkmenskaya iskra, 6.4.1992; Slovo kyrgyzstana, 10.3.1993.
52. Turkmenskaya iskra, 3.4.1992.
53. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 12.3.1993.
54. BBC SWB SU/1642, B/12, 20.3.1993.
55. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 22.9.1992 and 10.10.1992.
56. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 4.8.1992.
57. Turkmenskaya iskra, 1.4.1992.
58. Slovo kyrgyzstana, 24.3.1993.
59. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 29.8.1992.
60. Kazaakhstanskaya pravda, 12.12.1992.
61. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 27.1.1993.
62. See Akaev's speech to the Supreme Soviet on 12 April 1993. Slovo kyrgyzstana, 14.4.1993.
63. E. Huskey, 'The politics of language in Kyrgyzstan', Nationalities Papers, Vol 23, No 3, 1995, pp 549-572.
64. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 9.2.1993.
65. BBC SWB SU/1565, B/3-4, 16.12.1992.
66. Turkmenskaya iskra 9.4.1992.
67. On land reform see G. Gleason, 'Central Asian land reform and the ethnic factor', RFE/RL Research Report, Vol, No 3, 15.1.1993, pp 28-33; C. A. Werner, 'A preliminary assessment of attitudes towards the privatization of agriculture in contemporary Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, Vol 13, No 2, 1994, pp 295-304.
68. On land reform see G. Gleason, 'Central Asian land reform and the ethnic factor', RFE/RL Research Report, Vol, No 3, 15.1.1993, pp 28-33; C. A. Werner, 'A preliminary assessment of attitudes towards the privatization of agriculture in contemporary Kazakhstan', Central Asian Survey, Vol 13, No 2, 1994, pp 295-304.
69. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 19.2.1993.
70. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 11.11.1992.
71. See the comments of S. Abdil'din, deputy chairman of the Kazakh Supreme Soviet, in Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 7.8.1992.
72. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 2.4.1993; the idea of introducing quotas for women in parliament was to be taken up by Akaev following the February 1995 elections.
73. Turkmenskaya iskra, 30.3.1992; on decriminalization see Segodnya, 5.2.1994.
74. Turkmenskaya iskra, 30.3.1992; on decriminalization see Segodnya, 5.2.1994.
75. Although this rejection of private land ownership was often blamed on old communist officials, many sources suggested that the vast majority of Kazakh peasants were wary of privatization in general and that in late 1992 only about 5 per cent expressed any desire to own their own land. Izvestiya, 10.11.1992.
76. Turkmenskaya iskra, 17.1.1994.
77. N. Melvin, Forging the New Russian Nation (London, RIIA, 1994), pp 27-48.
78. J. Anderson, 'Elections and political change in Central Asia' (forthcoming) discusses the problematic nature of the Kazakh elections.
79. Nezavisimaya gazeta, 14.3.1995.
80. Segodnya, 4.5.1995.
81. The text can be found in Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 4.7.1994.
82. See the letters and articles published in Kazakhstanskaya pravda in every issue between 7 and 28 July. Prior to this debate Slavic organizations had expressed unease as to the make-up of the Assembly pointing to its disproportionate representation of Kazakhs and suggesting either direct elections or selection of delegates by social organizations representing all the important interests in society. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 13.3.1995.
83. See the letters and articles published in Kazakhstanskaya pravda in every issue between 7 and 28 July. Prior to this debate Slavic organizations had expressed unease as to the make-up of the Assembly pointing to its disproportionate representation of Kazakhs and suggesting either direct elections or selection of delegates by social organizations representing all the important interests in society. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 13.3.1995.
84. Open Media Research Institute (OMRI) 151, 4.8.1995; a highly critical view on the Kazakh constitution is presented in B. Johnson, 'The role of the United States in the erosion and collapse of constitutional government in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Monitor, 1995, 6, pp 14-19.
85. Open Media Research Institute (OMRI) 151, 4.8.1995; a highly critical view on the Kazakh constitution is presented in B. Johnson, 'The role of the United States in the erosion and collapse of constitutional government in Kazakhstan', Central Asian Monitor, 1995, 6, pp 14-19.
86. The results and final text of the constitution were published in Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 5.9.1995 and 8.9.1995 respectively.
87. Kazakhstanskaya pravda, 31.1.1996.
88. This decree can be found in Slovo kyrgyzstana, 23.9.1994.
89. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 25.10.1994 and 28.10.1994.
90. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 28.12.1994.
91. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 7.12.1994.
92. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 10.12.1994.
93. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 13.1.1995.
94. J. Anderson, 'The Kyrgyz parliamentary and presidential elections of 1995', Electoral Studies, Vol 15, No 4. 1996, pp 529-533.
95. The texts of the amendments can be found in Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 9-10.1.1996 and 30-31.1.1996.
96. See a series of highly critical articles in the proposed changes in Res publika, 16.1.1996, 24.1.1996 and 6.2.1996.
97. BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 13.2.1996.
98. Slovo Kyrgyzstana, 20.6.1996 and 28-29.1.1997.
99. OMRI 233, 4.12.1996.
100. K. Banting and R. Simeon, 'Introduction: the politics of constitutional change', in K. Banting and R. Simeon, eds, The Politics of Constitutional Change in Industrial Nations: Redesigning the State (London: Macmillan, 1985), pp 10-13.
101. See D. P. Franklin and M. J. Brown, eds, Political Culture and Constitutionalism (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1995), pp 1-10, which basically argues that in the absence of a favourable environment, such as is to be found in authoritarian states, institutional design is largely irrelevant.