Seeking the factory for women: Mozambican urbanization in the late colonial era

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 342-379

  Penvenne, Jeanne Marie ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; GENDER ISSUES; URBAN HISTORY; URBANISATION; WOMEN'S ROLE;

MOZAMBIQUE;

EID: 0031398181     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614429702300305     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Joan W. Scott, "Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis," American Historical Review 91 (1986), 1053-75.
2. Mary Helen Washington, Invented Lives: Narratives of Black Women, 1860-1960 (New York, 1987), xxvii, develops Cooper's observation that "a world in which the female is made subordinate is like a body with one eye bandaged. When the bandage is removed the body is filled with light: [now quoting Cooper] 'it sees a circle where before it saw a segment. The darkened eye restored, every member rejoices with it.' " See Ana Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South by a Black Woman of the South (Xenia, 1892), 23.
3. Mary Helen Washington, Invented Lives: Narratives of Black Women, 1860-1960 (New York, 1987), xxvii, develops Cooper's observation that "a world in which the female is made subordinate is like a body with one eye bandaged. When the bandage is removed the body is filled with light: [now quoting Cooper] 'it sees a circle where before it saw a segment. The darkened eye restored, every member rejoices with it.' " See Ana Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South by a Black Woman of the South (Xenia, 1892), 23.
4. Lourenco Marques was renamed Maputo at Mozambican independence in 1975. The colonial name is used throughout this essay.
5. A fine literature is emerging on gender and Mozambican women. For representative examples, see Nucleus for Women and Gender Studies, Centro de Estudos Africanos, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane research and publications, and the Women and the Law in Southern Africa project, and the work of Patrick Harries, Sherilynn Young, Kathleen E. Sheldon, Signe Amfred, Ana Maria Loforte, and Stephanie Urdang cited later.
6. This is the key focus of the Women and the Law in Southern Africa project. See also Martin Chanock, "Making Customary Law: Men, Women and Courts in Colonial Northern Rhodesia," in Margaret Jean Hay and Marcia Wright, eds., African Women & the Law: Historical Perspectives (Boston, 1982), 53-67.
7. For the term mulheres sem dono, see "Estado da Situação Social das Mulheres Trabalhadoras na Cidade de Maputo" (draft synopsis of a research project by Prof. Signe Amfred in cooperation with the Organização das Mulheres Moçambicanas [OMM], June 29,1982), 101.1 thank Kathleen E. Sheldon for sharing her photocopy of the work, and Prof. Amfred for permission to cite it.
8. According to António Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos de Lourenco Marques," in Memórias do Instituto de Investigação Cientifica de Moçambique, 9 Ser. C (Lourenço Marques, 1967-1968), 250-1, African men in 1960s Lourenço Marques thought urban migrant women were "mere objects of pleasure, inappropriate to select as wives." Annual reports of Inspecção dos Serviçes Administratives e dos Negócios Indfgenas (ISANI) mention only rural or urban women within state schemes to discourage male migration or alcohol consumption. The archives of the Administração do Conselho de Lourenço Marques are not yet open. In 1977, urban men labeled urban married women as "vulnerable," and women who came to the city either without a husband or to escape a husband as da mal vida, meaning prostitutes. Oral testimony (OT), port and municipal labor force, Maputo, 1977 (appendix has full names and dates): Faleca, Guambe, Inguane, Kuambe, Bucuane, Jeque, Macaneo, Mafuane, Mambiro, F. and J. Mondlane, Muando, Muchanga, Nhaposse, and Nuvunga.
9. The essay uses data collected in Maputo, Mozambique, between July 1992 and August 1993. The author and the research assistant, Mrs. Joaquina Boane Machava, invited 120 women and 5 men from Cajú Industrial de Moçambique, Mozambique's national cashew-shelling industry, to relate their stories, in any way they saw fit, on tape in Ronga, Shangaan, or Portuguese. The author participated in all narrations; Mrs. Machava participated in most Mrs. Machava transcribed the more than ninety hours of tapes and translated those not in Portuguese. See Personal Narratives Group, Interpreting Women's Lives: Feminist Theory and Personal Narratives (Bloominglon, 1989), for methodology used to free oral testimony, as far as possible, from the assumptions and biases of the project or scholar.
10. Maria Silva, "As Missões Católicas Feminínas," Estudos De Ciéncias Politicas e Sociais 37 (1960), 49-77, gives figures from 1958 for percentage of cashew-shellers who were female heads of household, supporting minor children, and rural born. The women's narratives here quite closely fit this portrait.
11. We linked informants' characters with those acknowledged by the hierarchy with the help of Carlos Maundla, who worked at the Chamanculo factory from 1952 until 1990. OT, Maundla, July 13, 1993.
12. See, for example, Patrick Harries, Work, Culture and Identity: Migrant Laborers in Mozambique and South Africa, c. 1860-1910 (Portsmouth, 1994).
13. Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3 (Maputo, 1983,1993); Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington, 1995); Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, 1983); and Jeanne Marie Penvenne, Africa Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques (Portsmouth, 1995), 6-20, 116, 157.
14. Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3 (Maputo, 1983,1993); Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington, 1995); Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, 1983); and Jeanne Marie Penvenne, Africa Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques (Portsmouth, 1995), 6-20, 116, 157.
15. Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3 (Maputo, 1983,1993); Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington, 1995); Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, 1983); and Jeanne Marie Penvenne, Africa Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques (Portsmouth, 1995), 6-20, 116, 157.
16. Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3 (Maputo, 1983,1993); Malyn Newitt, A History of Mozambique (Bloomington, 1995); Allen F. Isaacman and Barbara Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900-1982 (Boulder, 1983); and Jeanne Marie Penvenne, Africa Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques (Portsmouth, 1995), 6-20, 116, 157.
17. Jeanne Marie Penvenne, "'Here Everyone Walked with Fear': The Mozambican Labor System and the Workers of Lourenço Marques, 1945-1962," in Frederick Cooper, ed., Struggle for the City: Migrant Labor, Capital and the State in Urban Africa (Beverly Hills, 1983); Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vol. 3.
18. Jeanne Marie Penvenne, "'Here Everyone Walked with Fear': The Mozambican Labor System and the Workers of Lourenço Marques, 1945-1962," in Frederick Cooper, ed., Struggle for the City: Migrant Labor, Capital and the State in Urban Africa (Beverly Hills, 1983); Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vol. 3.
19. U.S. Department of State, "Documents Relating to Labor and the Economy in Mozambique, 1950 to 1962," and "Documents Relating to Labor and the Economy in Mozambique, 1962 to 1975," photocopies acquired through the Freedom of Information Act, and archived at African Studies Library, Boston University. The company's archives have not been located to date.
20. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
21. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
22. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
23. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
24. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
25. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
26. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
27. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
28. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
29. For representative examples of urban history, see Paul Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City: 10 Years of South African Urban Historiography" Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 19-38; Hilary Sapire and Jo Beall, "Urban Studies and Urban Change in Southern Africa," JSAS 21, no. 1 (March 1995), pp. 3-17; Charles van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand, 1886-1914, 2 vol. (London, 1982). For Mozambique, Maria Clara Mendes, Maputo antes de Independência: Geografia de uma Cidade Colonial (Lisbon, 1985); Kathleen Sheldon, "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1988); and Arquivo, the journal of the Arqui"vo Histo"rico de Moçambique, for several special issues on Mozambique's cities. For challenges to the metanarrative, Belinda Bozzoli, with Mmantho Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng: Consciousness, Life Strategy and Migrancy in South Africa. 1900-1983 (Heinemann, 1991); Cherryl Walker, ed., Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 (London, 1990); Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, Traders, and Wives: Shona Women in the History of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939 (Portsmouth, 1993); Iris Berger, Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980 (Bloomington, 1991).
30. Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City."
31. Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City"; and Penvenne, African Workers.
32. Maylam, "Explaining the Apartheid City"; and Penvenne, African Workers.
33. This was a consistent theme in the African and European press in Lóurenço Marques. See Jeanne Marie Penvenne, "'We Are All Portuguese!' Challenging the Political Economy of Assimilation: Lourenço Marques, 1870-1933," in Leroy Vail, ed., The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa (Berkeley, 1989), 255-88.
34. For this issue in Lourenço Marques, see "Actas das Reuniöes da Comissäo de Construçâo de Pousadas ou Bairros Indígenes," February 27, 1923, to January 27, 1941, Secretaria de Negócios Indigenas (SNI) doc. 3-410, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique (AHM), Maputo.
35. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
36. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
37. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
38. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
39. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
40. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
41. Sherilynn Young, "Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique," in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty (Berkeley, 1977); Otto Roesch, "Migrant Labour and Forced Rice Production in Southern Mozambique: The Colonial Peasantry of the Lower Limpopo Valley," JSAS 17 (June 1991), 239-70; Stephanie Urdang, Rural Transformation and Peasant Women in Mozambique (Geneva, 1986); Ana Maria Loforte, "Migrantes e Sua Relação com o Meio Rural," Trabalhos de Arqueologia e Antropologia 4 (1987), 55-69; Departamento de História, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, História de Moçambique, vols. 2, 3; Newitt, A History of Mozambique; Isaacman and Isaacman, Mozambique.
42. Circular, August 26, 1946, Nos. 338 and 339/B/17/1, Direcção Provincial de Administração Civil (DPAC), Sul do Save; Requerimento Isabel Mussana to Administração de Concelho de Lourenço Marques (ACLM), October 19, 1948, ACLM Archive, AHM.
43. Stallard helped shape South Africa's 1923 and 1937 Urban Areas Acts. See P. B. Rich, "Ministering to the White Man's Needs: The Development of Urban Segregation in South Africa, 1913-1923," African Studies 37 (1978), 177-91; and Philip Bonner, "Backs to the Fence: Law, Liquor, and the Search for Social Control in an East Rand Town, 1929-1942," in Jonathan Crush and Charles Ambler, eds., Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Athens, 1992).
44. Stallard helped shape South Africa's 1923 and 1937 Urban Areas Acts. See P. B. Rich, "Ministering to the White Man's Needs: The Development of Urban Segregation in South Africa, 1913-1923," African Studies 37 (1978), 177-91; and Philip Bonner, "Backs to the Fence: Law, Liquor, and the Search for Social Control in an East Rand Town, 1929-1942," in Jonathan Crush and Charles Ambler, eds., Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa (Athens, 1992).
45. Mozambique exercised more arbitrary and haphazard influx controls than South Africa, but Native Affairs Department advisories from the 1940s sought to prevent urban migration of African women and children and to remove single women from urban areas. Circular, August 26,1946, Nos. 338 and 339/B/17/1, DPAC; Requerimento Isabel Mussana to ACLM, October 19, 1948, ACLM Archive, AHM.
46. See SNI doc. 3-122, 1929-1930, AHM; and ACLM uncatalogued documentation, Caixa, T, 1949, headed "milandos," for efforts to control women.
47. Karen Jochelson, "Women, Migrancy and Morality: A Problem of Perspective," [Review] JSAS 21 (June 1995), 323-32, highlights bias in interpreting southern African forms of contestation. See the introduction, esp. 7ff, and essays by Bonner and Scan Reading in Crush and Ambler, Liquor and Labor.
48. Karen Jochelson, "Women, Migrancy and Morality: A Problem of Perspective," [Review] JSAS 21 (June 1995), 323-32, highlights bias in interpreting southern African forms of contestation. See the introduction, esp. 7ff, and essays by Bonner and Scan Reading in Crush and Ambler, Liquor and Labor.
49. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History, II, chap. 1; Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions; Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca, 1989); Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992); Penvenne, African Workers, 141-53. Missions trained local women for such jobs, which usually required some mastery of a European language, but poor rural women were not in a position to compete.
50. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History, II, chap. 1; Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions; Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca, 1989); Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992); Penvenne, African Workers, 141-53. Missions trained local women for such jobs, which usually required some mastery of a European language, but poor rural women were not in a position to compete.
51. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History, II, chap. 1; Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions; Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca, 1989); Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992); Penvenne, African Workers, 141-53. Missions trained local women for such jobs, which usually required some mastery of a European language, but poor rural women were not in a position to compete.
52. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History, II, chap. 1; Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions; Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca, 1989); Karen Tranberg Hansen, ed., African Encounters with Domesticity (New Brunswick, 1992); Penvenne, African Workers, 141-53. Missions trained local women for such jobs, which usually required some mastery of a European language, but poor rural women were not in a position to compete.
53. A systematic 5 percent survey of employment registration records of Africans working in Lourenço Marques, 1950 to 1962 (hereafter called the ACLM sample), revealed the gendered and age breakdowns in domestic service positions. For sexual tensions, Penvenne, "Here Everyone Walked with Fear' " and African Workers. For comparative work, Heidi Tinsman, "The Indispensable Services of Sisters : Considering Domestic Service in United States and Latin American Studies," Journal of Women's History 4 (Spring 1992), 37-59.
54. A systematic 5 percent survey of employment registration records of Africans working in Lourenço Marques, 1950 to 1962 (hereafter called the ACLM sample), revealed the gendered and age breakdowns in domestic service positions. For sexual tensions, Penvenne, "Here Everyone Walked with Fear' " and African Workers. For comparative work, Heidi Tinsman, "The Indispensable Services of Sisters : Considering Domestic Service in United States and Latin American Studies," Journal of Women's History 4 (Spring 1992), 37-59.
55. Jochelson, "Women, Migrancy and Morality"; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Penvenne, African Workers, 214-5; OT, Mambiro, Muando, Muchanga, Mafuane, Nhaposse, Nuvunga; and note 6 above.
56. Jochelson, "Women, Migrancy and Morality"; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Penvenne, African Workers, 214-5; OT, Mambiro, Muando, Muchanga, Mafuane, Nhaposse, Nuvunga; and note 6 above.
57. Jochelson, "Women, Migrancy and Morality"; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Penvenne, African Workers, 214-5; OT, Mambiro, Muando, Muchanga, Mafuane, Nhaposse, Nuvunga; and note 6 above.
58. See Africa 30 (1960), 141-52, 234-45, and Africa 31 (1961), 75-7, for comments, reply, and response between Rita Ferreira and Marvin Harris regarding "Labour Emigration among the Mozambique Thonga: Comments on Marvin Harris's Reply," Africa, 31 (1961), pp.75-77.
59. See Africa 30 (1960), 141-52, 234-45, and Africa 31 (1961), 75-7, for comments, reply, and response between Rita Ferreira and Marvin Harris regarding "Labour Emigration among the Mozambique Thonga: Comments on Marvin Harris's Reply," Africa, 31 (1961), pp.75-77.
60. See Africa 30 (1960), 141-52, 234-45, and Africa 31 (1961), 75-7, for comments, reply, and response between Rita Ferreira and Marvin Harris regarding "Labour Emigration among the Mozambique Thonga: Comments on Marvin Harris's Reply," Africa, 31 (1961), pp.75-77.
61. See Berger, Threads of Solidarity, for South Africa. The work on urbanization by scholars at the Rhodes/Livingston Institute focused largely on male migrants but in so doing raised the Profile of urban women. Jane Parpart, Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt (Philadelphia, 1983), and G. Chauncey, "The Locus of Reproduction: Women's Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953," JSAS 7 (1981), 135-64, anticipated questions explored by Berger, who shows worker consciousness and participation in urban labor action shaped by gender, class, and race. Bozzoli and Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng, present a detailed social history of twenty-six elderly women who left the fairly prosperous region of Phokeng in their youth, worked, married, and lived in the city most of their lives but then retired in relative comfort to Phokeng as elder women. These women generally did not move to town following or seeking a man or because they could not survive on rural holdings.
62. See Berger, Threads of Solidarity, for South Africa. The work on urbanization by scholars at the Rhodes/Livingston Institute focused largely on male migrants but in so doing raised the Profile of urban women. Jane Parpart, Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt (Philadelphia, 1983), and G. Chauncey, "The Locus of Reproduction: Women's Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953," JSAS 7 (1981), 135-64, anticipated questions explored by Berger, who shows worker consciousness and participation in urban labor action shaped by gender, class, and race. Bozzoli and Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng, present a detailed social history of twenty-six elderly women who left the fairly prosperous region of Phokeng in their youth, worked, married, and lived in the city most of their lives but then retired in relative comfort to Phokeng as elder women. These women generally did not move to town following or seeking a man or because they could not survive on rural holdings.
63. See Berger, Threads of Solidarity, for South Africa. The work on urbanization by scholars at the Rhodes/Livingston Institute focused largely on male migrants but in so doing raised the Profile of urban women. Jane Parpart, Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt (Philadelphia, 1983), and G. Chauncey, "The Locus of Reproduction: Women's Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953," JSAS 7 (1981), 135-64, anticipated questions explored by Berger, who shows worker consciousness and participation in urban labor action shaped by gender, class, and race. Bozzoli and Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng, present a detailed social history of twenty-six elderly women who left the fairly prosperous region of Phokeng in their youth, worked, married, and lived in the city most of their lives but then retired in relative comfort to Phokeng as elder women. These women generally did not move to town following or seeking a man or because they could not survive on rural holdings.
64. See Berger, Threads of Solidarity, for South Africa. The work on urbanization by scholars at the Rhodes/Livingston Institute focused largely on male migrants but in so doing raised the Profile of urban women. Jane Parpart, Labor and Capital on the African Copperbelt (Philadelphia, 1983), and G. Chauncey, "The Locus of Reproduction: Women's Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927-1953," JSAS 7 (1981), 135-64, anticipated questions explored by Berger, who shows worker consciousness and participation in urban labor action shaped by gender, class, and race. Bozzoli and Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng, present a detailed social history of twenty-six elderly women who left the fairly prosperous region of Phokeng in their youth, worked, married, and lived in the city most of their lives but then retired in relative comfort to Phokeng as elder women. These women generally did not move to town following or seeking a man or because they could not survive on rural holdings.
65. Sheldon, in "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" and subsequent work on women in factory labor in Mozambique's second major city, developed parallel information for the garment and cashew-shelling industries. See also Harries, Work, Culture and Identity; and the work of Young, Amfred, Loforte, and Urdang.
66. Sheldon, in "Working Women in Beira, Mozambique" and subsequent work on women in factory labor in Mozambique's second major city, developed parallel information for the garment and cashew-shelling industries. See also Harries, Work, Culture and Identity; and the work of Young, Amfred, Loforte, and Urdang.
67. Donald F. Heisel, "The Indigenous Populations of the Portuguese African Territories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966), 189, concluded that census reports of population characteristics were "nearly useless for ... detailed analysis." Mendes, Maputo, surveys demographic history of Lourenco Marques; see also the bibliography in Arquivo, vol. 2.
68. Donald F. Heisel, "The Indigenous Populations of the Portuguese African Territories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966), 189, concluded that census reports of population characteristics were "nearly useless for ... detailed analysis." Mendes, Maputo, surveys demographic history of Lourenco Marques; see also the bibliography in Arquivo, vol. 2.
69. Donald F. Heisel, "The Indigenous Populations of the Portuguese African Territories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1966), 189, concluded that census reports of population characteristics were "nearly useless for ... detailed analysis." Mendes, Maputo, surveys demographic history of Lourenco Marques; see also the bibliography in Arquivo, vol. 2.
70. Repartição Técnica de Estatistica (RTE), Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Não Indigena (Lourenço Marques, 1945), 98-9.
71. This theme is constant in the urban African press from its 1908 inception. Tensions between locals and other Mozambicans stationed in Lourenco Marques as soldiers and police were allegedly based on assaults on local women; in the late 1940s there were several violent episodes. Uncatalogued SNI files, 1947-1950, ACLM Archive, AHM.
72. See publications of the statistics department (the census, Estatistica Industrial, and Anuário Estatístico); Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," chap. 6, esp. 233; and Mendes, Maputo, for broad statistical data.
73. See publications of the statistics department (the census, Estatistica Industrial, and Anuário Estatístico); Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," chap. 6, esp. 233; and Mendes, Maputo, for broad statistical data.
74. See publications of the statistics department (the census, Estatistica Industrial, and Anuário Estatístico); Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," chap. 6, esp. 233; and Mendes, Maputo, for broad statistical data.
75. See publications of the statistics department (the census, Estatistica Industrial, and Anuário Estatístico); Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," chap. 6, esp. 233; and Mendes, Maputo, for broad statistical data.
76. For early industrial development, see Delagoa Directory (Lourenco Marques, 1899- [title change to Anuário de Lourenço Marques, 1914] -1949); for later, Anuário Estatístico and the Estatistica Industrial. In 1950, 31.7 percent; in 1973, 36.8 percent. Mendes, Maputo, 245-7, chap. 4.
77. For early industrial development, see Delagoa Directory (Lourenco Marques, 1899- [title change to Anuário de Lourenço Marques, 1914] -1949); for later, Anuário Estatístico and the Estatistica Industrial. In 1950, 31.7 percent; in 1973, 36.8 percent. Mendes, Maputo, 245-7, chap. 4.
78. For early industrial development, see Delagoa Directory (Lourenco Marques, 1899- [title change to Anuário de Lourenço Marques, 1914] -1949); for later, Anuário Estatístico and the Estatistica Industrial. In 1950, 31.7 percent; in 1973, 36.8 percent. Mendes, Maputo, 245-7, chap. 4.
79. For early industrial development, see Delagoa Directory (Lourenco Marques, 1899- [title change to Anuário de Lourenço Marques, 1914] -1949); for later, Anuário Estatístico and the Estatistica Industrial. In 1950, 31.7 percent; in 1973, 36.8 percent. Mendes, Maputo, 245-7, chap. 4.
80. Joana H.M.F.P. Pereira Leite, "La Formation de l'Economie Coloniale au Mozambique: Pacte Coloniale Industrialisation: Du Colonialisme Portugais aux Réseaux Informels de Sujétion Marchande, 1930-1974" (Doctoral thesis, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1989), esp. 247, for Mozambique's economic growth, industrialization, and the new state's policies for the colonies.
81. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indígena, indicates 85 percent of urban African women but does not differentiate by origin, so it is unclear how many are local or migrant.
82. Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Judith Martins Alves, "A Destribalização da Mulher Negra em Geral com alguns Apontementos Sôbre o Problema vivido em Moçambique," Estudos Ultramarines, 2 (1961), 99-129; Silva, "As Missões Católicas Feminínas."
83. Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Judith Martins Alves, "A Destribalização da Mulher Negra em Geral com alguns Apontementos Sôbre o Problema vivido em Moçambique," Estudos Ultramarines, 2 (1961), 99-129; Silva, "As Missões Católicas Feminínas."
84. Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos"; Judith Martins Alves, "A Destribalização da Mulher Negra em Geral com alguns Apontementos Sôbre o Problema vivido em Moçambique," Estudos Ultramarines, 2 (1961), 99-129; Silva, "As Missões Católicas Feminínas."
85. Mendes, Maputo, details urban, peri-urban, and suburban construction and industrialization. For increasingly limited access to land and firewood, see Brado Africano, June 6, August 22, 1942, December 25, 1945; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249ff.
86. Mendes, Maputo, details urban, peri-urban, and suburban construction and industrialization. For increasingly limited access to land and firewood, see Brado Africano, June 6, August 22, 1942, December 25, 1945; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249ff.
87. Mendes, Maputo, details urban, peri-urban, and suburban construction and industrialization. For increasingly limited access to land and firewood, see Brado Africano, June 6, August 22, 1942, December 25, 1945; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249ff.
88. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
89. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
90. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
91. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
92. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
93. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
94. RTE, Censo da População em 1940, vol. 4, População Indigena, and Recenseamento Geral da População em 1950, vol. 2, População Não Civilizada. A 1957 survey of cashew workers claimed Cajú employed 1,238 women; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 249. The most complete data are from Estatística Industrial, cited in figure below. The 833 figure is from Direcção Provincial dos Serviçes de Estatística Geral, Recenseamento Geral da População na Província de Moçambique, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques, Ano 3. INE, IV Recenseamento Geral da Populaçao, 1970, vol. 1, Distrito de Lourenço Marques. See also, Penvenne, " 'Here Everyone Walked with Fear,' " 148-53.
95. Colónia de Moçambique, RTE, Estatística Industrial, 1947-1973 (Lourenço Marques, 1950-1973); José M. dos Santos Rufino, Albuns Fotográficos e Descritivos: Colónia de Moçambique (Hamburg, 1929), IV, 13-6;
96. Colónia de Moçambique, RTE, Estatística Industrial, 1947-1973 (Lourenço Marques, 1950-1973); José M. dos Santos Rufino, Albuns Fotográficos e Descritivos: Colónia de Moçambique (Hamburg, 1929), IV, 13-6;
97. Silva, "As Missões Católicas," 56.
98. OT (SAT), George Tsilhakis, son of Telemachus Tsilhakis, founder of Sociedade Agrícola de Tabacos (SAT), and his retired workers Mfumo, Nhamosso, Matinela, Nhaca, and Macuacua. Interviews corroborated the "light" nature of tobacco-packing jobs and their tendency to run in local families. OT (Cajú), Bila, E. Mulungu and Rosalina Tembe, Muhale; OT (Maputo, 1977), Muiane, L. Tembe.
99. ACLM to Repartição Central de Négócios Indígenas (RCNI), September 29, 1949, 50/B/8 "Regulamento de Trabalho Indigena (RTI)," regarding Article 180, Red Caixa AA and JJ, ACLM Archive, AHM.
100. Penvenne, African Workers, 157-8.
101. Michel Cahen, "Corporatisme et colonialisme: approche du cas mozambicain, 1933-1979: I: Une Genése difficile, un movement squelettique,́ Cahiers d'études Africaines 92, XXIII, 4 (1983), 383-417, and "II: Crise et survivance du corporatisme colonial, 1960-1979," Cahiers d'études Africaines 93, XXIV, 1 (1984), 5-24; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 352ff; Penvenne, African Workers, 141-2, 189, notes 2-7.
102. Michel Cahen, "Corporatisme et colonialisme: approche du cas mozambicain, 1933-1979: I: Une Genése difficile, un movement squelettique,́ Cahiers d'études Africaines 92, XXIII, 4 (1983), 383-417, and "II: Crise et survivance du corporatisme colonial, 1960-1979," Cahiers d'études Africaines 93, XXIV, 1 (1984), 5-24; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 352ff; Penvenne, African Workers, 141-2, 189, notes 2-7.
103. Michel Cahen, "Corporatisme et colonialisme: approche du cas mozambicain, 1933-1979: I: Une Genése difficile, un movement squelettique,́ Cahiers d'études Africaines 92, XXIII, 4 (1983), 383-417, and "II: Crise et survivance du corporatisme colonial, 1960-1979," Cahiers d'études Africaines 93, XXIV, 1 (1984), 5-24; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 352ff; Penvenne, African Workers, 141-2, 189, notes 2-7.
104. Michel Cahen, "Corporatisme et colonialisme: approche du cas mozambicain, 1933-1979: I: Une Genése difficile, un movement squelettique,́ Cahiers d'études Africaines 92, XXIII, 4 (1983), 383-417, and "II: Crise et survivance du corporatisme colonial, 1960-1979," Cahiers d'études Africaines 93, XXIV, 1 (1984), 5-24; Rita Ferreira, "Os Africanos," 352ff; Penvenne, African Workers, 141-2, 189, notes 2-7.
105. Shortly before I began interviews in the Chamanculo factory, a boiler explosion killed several workers. The morning interviews began, a worker severed a finger on the machinery. The entire industry is licensed under the category "toxic."
106. The ACLM sample shows that 92 percent of cashew workers from the early 1950s to 1960 were born outside the city. The ratio of locals to migrants shifted from the mid-1960s as the locally born daughters or nieces of migrant women followed their female relatives into the factory. See OT, R. Machava and S. Bila.
107. Not all women mentioned their first job at Caju. We did not follow this issue; the pattern of movement from dirtier to cleaner jobs is only partially documented. Many women complained of the debilitating dust and noise of the early stages. OT, S. Cuma, Ncutana, J. Elmina, C. Nhatsone, R. and P. Muianga.
108. The industry assumed that mechanized production would be more profitable and less cumbersome, but the irregularity of the shell frustrated mechanization. For examples, see, A. B. Ramalho Correia, A Industrialização da Castanha de Cajú - O Cajueiro e os Seus Produtos (Lourenço Marques, 1963); and series in Noticias by Domingos José Soares Rebelo, April 24, June 3, August 19, 1952, and by J. da Praia, August 1-4, 1956.
109. The industry assumed that mechanized production would be more profitable and less cumbersome, but the irregularity of the shell frustrated mechanization. For examples, see, A. B. Ramalho Correia, A Industrialização da Castanha de Cajú - O Cajueiro e os Seus Produtos (Lourenço Marques, 1963); and series in Noticias by Domingos José Soares Rebelo, April 24, June 3, August 19, 1952, and by J. da Praia, August 1-4, 1956.
110. Estatística Industrial, 1954, 1956, 1962, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973. Mozambique's basic currency was the escudo; a conto equaled 1,000 escudos. In
111. OT. Almost all informants with extensive experience in despeliculagem mentioned the difficulty of completing the piece task. Women were also vulnerable to supervisors' implicit and explicit demands for material, service, and sexual favors in order to have their day's work regularly checked off (marcar). Those who failed to marcar had to clean up without pay (arrumar) Several informants noted a lesbian supervisor who demanded sexual access particularly to inexperienced girls in exchange for marking their daily ticket. OT, A. Nhabangue, M. Honwana, M. Moiana.
112. The stability of these workers registered in the 5 percent systematic sample of the urban labor force and in the employment records from Cajú Industrial de Moçambique. ACLM Sample.
113. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
114. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
115. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
116. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
117. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
118. See, for example, Charles Fuller, "An Ethnohistorical Study of Continuity and Change in Gwambe Culture" (Ph.D. dissertation. Northwestern University, 1955), esp. 151-5; Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Young, "Fertility and Famine"; Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above. Brado Africano, March 22, April 25, 1947, August 27, 1949, February 25, 1950; U.S. Consular Despatches from Lourenço Marques (USACLM), 142 (1951), 151 (1952), 141 (1953); Notícias, April 29, 1949.
119. The Res gate dos Machongos data from Rodrigues Júnior, Transportes de Moçambique (Lisbon, 1956), 219-54.
120. Regulamento de Identificação Indigena, Portaria 6490, June 15, 1946. By Article 5, Africans needed a passbook to leave their local administrative zone. A "parent, husband, tutor or administrative authority" had to authorize a woman's passbook application. A transport company carrying women or children without passbooks could be fined. See ACLM ficha 29121; Circular, RCNI; Circular, August 26,1946, Nos. 338 and 339/B/17/1; ACLM to RCNI, September 19, 1952; ACLM Aviso B/17, June 24,1950, all ACLM Archive, AHM.
121. One program offered men an interest-free loan to acquire a "bridewealth" - the sum the groom's family paid to the bride's family to confirm that upon marriage the bride's service, labor, and children moved to the husband's land and contributed to the prosperity of his lineage - as long as they pledged never to migrate or contract their labor in South Africa. Few men were willing to forgo the option to migrate, and the program was cancelled.
122. Júnior, Transportes de Moçambique, 219-54; and Roesch, "Migrant Labour," 266-7.
123. Júnior, Transportes de Moçambique, 219-54; and Roesch, "Migrant Labour," 266-7.
124. Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Allen Isaacman, Cotton Is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1995); and Heidi Gengenbach, "Gender, Family and Farming in Southern Mozambique: An Agricultural and Social History of Labor-Exporting Communities" (predissertation fieldwork grant proposal, University of Minnesota, April 1992) all examine this.
125. Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Allen Isaacman, Cotton Is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1995); and Heidi Gengenbach, "Gender, Family and Farming in Southern Mozambique: An Agricultural and Social History of Labor-Exporting Communities" (predissertation fieldwork grant proposal, University of Minnesota, April 1992) all examine this.
126. Roesch, "Migrant Labour"; Allen Isaacman, Cotton Is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938-1961 (Portsmouth, 1995); and Heidi Gengenbach, "Gender, Family and Farming in Southern Mozambique: An Agricultural and Social History of Labor-Exporting Communities" (predissertation fieldwork grant proposal, University of Minnesota, April 1992) all examine this.
127. The classic statements of labor migration are contained in the Rita Ferreira/Harris debate, see note 29 above.
128. OT, quote, C. Miambu, with corroboration from J. Chivangue, "You are going to work to forget your poverty," and M. Chivano.
129. Methodology discussed in note 8 above.
130. Bozzoli and Nkotsoe, Women of Phokeng.
131. A casual survey of uncataloged "Atestados de Pobreza," 1940s and 1950, ACLM Archive, AHM, shows applicants for free boarding in orphanages, mission, or state schools, and free school uniforms and book subsidies as poor Portuguese, fairly educated mulattoes, and educated local Africans. The leadership of the Brado Africano regularly protested this situation; see, for example, March 11, April 8, 1950.
132. OT, A. Chiconela.
133. Ibid.
134. Only seven of the Cajú interviews were conducted fully in Portuguese; the majority of interviews at SAT were conducted in Portuguese.
135. A 1958 study by Ferraz de Freitas revealed that 89 percent of Cajú women headed households and 62 percent supported children. The 1970 census counted 5,208 women working at Cajú, 60 percent single, 15 percent married, the rest widowed, divorced, or separated. (The respective totals were 3,083, 779, 836, 453, and 57.) Thus 85 percent were not married. They were sem dono and thus may have fit Ferraz de Freitas' criteria to distinguish heads of households.
136. Poverty is central to the narratives, but women's attitudes varied. H. Chemane said she was poor, but "I never felt poor." OT.
137. OT, M. Honwana.
138. OT, C. Mpendane.
139. OT, J. Uaichele. For clarification on Mathlothlomana, I am grateful to Arlindo Lopes, E-mail, August 31, 1994, 19:44:42-0400 (EDT).
140. OT, R. Notiço.
141. OT, group of retirees, May 27, 1993.
142. OT, group of retirees, May 26,1993, esp. A. Chabanguane.
143. OT, M. Nhamave.
144. OT, E. Mulungo and E. Chivambo, "Loku uku inhimba yaku le? Aku hee! Ahi Nhimba hanga. [etc.]"
145. Ibid.
146. OT, P. Muianga.
147. OT, C. Maculuve.
148. OT, group of retirees, May 31, 1993, quote by C. Cau.
149. Ibid.
150. OT, M. Honwana.
151. OT, C. Mpendane.
152. OT, group of retirees, general experiences; for example, see A. Muzima.
153. OT, group of retirees, May 27, 1993, quotes from R. Notiço and R. Machava.