Law and Morals in Classical Legal Thought

Iowa Law Review

Volumn 82, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 1427-1465

  Hovenkamp, Herbert ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

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EID: 0031330473     PISSN: 00210552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (251)

1. See Herbert Hovenkamp, Enterprise and American Law, 1836-1937, at 183-92 (1991) (describing the Jacksonian movement as antiregulatory) [hereinafter Hovenkamp, Enterprise]. See generally Howard Aaron Gillman, The Constitution Besieged: The Rise and Demise of Lochner Era Police Powers Jurisprudence (1993).
2. See Herbert Hovenkamp, Enterprise and American Law, 1836-1937, at 183-92 (1991) (describing the Jacksonian movement as antiregulatory) [hereinafter Hovenkamp, Enterprise]. See generally Howard Aaron Gillman, The Constitution Besieged: The Rise and Demise of Lochner Era Police Powers Jurisprudence (1993).
3. See, e.g., Telecommunications Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-104, 110 Stat. 56 (codified in scattered sections of 47 U.S.C.); Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, 49 U.S.C. § 1301, Pub. L. No. 95-504, 92 Stat. 1705 (1987); Motor Carrier Deregulation Act of 1980, 49 U.S.C. § 11101, Pub. L. No. 96-296, 94 Stat. 793 (1980).
4. Daniel Pearl, GOP Hates Regulations, Except on Entertainment, Wall St. J., June 15, 1995, at B1.
5. See Clinton Wants TVs Equipped with Chips for Blocking Shows, Wall St. J., July 11, 1995, at B14; Daniel Pearl, Hot Career of the Future: Indecency Screener, Wall St. J., July 13, 1995, at B1; Daniel Pearl, Untangling Wires: Telecommunications, Like Politics, Is Local, the Locals Are Saying, Wall St. J., Aug. 3, 1995, at A1.
6. See Clinton Wants TVs Equipped with Chips for Blocking Shows, Wall St. J., July 11, 1995, at B14; Daniel Pearl, Hot Career of the Future: Indecency Screener, Wall St. J., July 13, 1995, at B1; Daniel Pearl, Untangling Wires: Telecommunications, Like Politics, Is Local, the Locals Are Saying, Wall St. J., Aug. 3, 1995, at A1.
7. See Clinton Wants TVs Equipped with Chips for Blocking Shows, Wall St. J., July 11, 1995, at B14; Daniel Pearl, Hot Career of the Future: Indecency Screener, Wall St. J., July 13, 1995, at B1; Daniel Pearl, Untangling Wires: Telecommunications, Like Politics, Is Local, the Locals Are Saying, Wall St. J., Aug. 3, 1995, at A1.
8. 410 U.S. 113 (1973).
9. See, e.g., Abortion: A Topic for November, U.S. News & World Rep., Apr. 22, 1996, at 17.
10. See J.R.T. Hughes, The Governmental Habit: Economic Controls from Colonial Times to the Present 36-45 (1977).
11. Editorial, Right to Work Committee Fights for Human Rights of All Workers, Conservative Dig., Mar. 1991, at 2, 4.
12. Marci DeWolf, Competitive Economy Council Fights Good Fight to Keep Free Enterprise Free, Conservative Dig., Mar. 1981, at 32.
13. John D. Lofton, Jr., NARAL Does Have a Hit List: America's Unborn, Conservative Dig., Mar. 1991, at 26, 26; see also Jerome L. Himmelstein, To the Right: The Transformation of American Conservatism 88-90 (1990).
14. John D. Lofton, Jr., NARAL Does Have a Hit List: America's Unborn, Conservative Dig., Mar. 1991, at 26, 26; see also Jerome L. Himmelstein, To the Right: The Transformation of American Conservatism 88-90 (1990).
15. See, e.g., Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council, 505 U.S. 1003 (1992); Stevens v. City of Cannon Beach, 854 P.2d 449 (Or. 1993), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1207 (1994) (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari).
16. See United States v. Lopez, 115 S. Ct. 1624, 1642-13 (1995). For a critique of Justice Thomas's historiography, see Herbert Hovenkamp, Judicial Restraint and Constitutional Federalism: The Supreme Court's Lopez and Seminole Tribe Decisions, 96 Colum. L. Rev. 2213 (1996).
17. See, e.g., Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833, 995 (1992) (Scalia, J., dissenting, joined by Thomas, J.).
18. See Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186 (1986) (upholding state antisodomy statute).
19. See City of Edmonds v. Oxford House, 514 U.S. 725 (1995) (Thomas, J., dissenting) (dissenting from decision applying federal statute so as to override municipal ordinance prohibiting unmarried people from living together).
20. See Herbert Hovenkamp, Arrow's Theorem: Ordinalism and Republican Government, 75 Iowa L. Rev. 949, 956 (1990) (arguing that if public choice theory applies to legislation at all, it applies to all forms, that which applies to economics and that which applies to morals).
21. On this point, see Herbert Hovenkamp, Regulation History as Politics or Markets, 12 Yale J. on Reg. 549 (1995).
22. See, e.g., Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana 25-33, 267-69 (1953); Irving Kristol, Reflections of a NeoConservtive: Looking Back, Looking Ahead 55-69 (1983); Michael Novak, Belief and Unbelief: A Philosophy of Self-Knowledge 182-88 (1965); see also Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (2d ed. 1984).
23. See, e.g., Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana 25-33, 267-69 (1953); Irving Kristol, Reflections of a NeoConservtive: Looking Back, Looking Ahead 55-69 (1983); Michael Novak, Belief and Unbelief: A Philosophy of Self-Knowledge 182-88 (1965); see also Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (2d ed. 1984).
24. See, e.g., Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana 25-33, 267-69 (1953); Irving Kristol, Reflections of a NeoConservtive: Looking Back, Looking Ahead 55-69 (1983); Michael Novak, Belief and Unbelief: A Philosophy of Self-Knowledge 182-88 (1965); see also Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (2d ed. 1984).
25. See, e.g., Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Santayana 25-33, 267-69 (1953); Irving Kristol, Reflections of a NeoConservtive: Looking Back, Looking Ahead 55-69 (1983); Michael Novak, Belief and Unbelief: A Philosophy of Self-Knowledge 182-88 (1965); see also Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (2d ed. 1984).
26. See, e.g., Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke 173-76 (Paul Langford ed., 1980); Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, supra, at 263-65.
27. See, e.g., Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke 173-76 (Paul Langford ed., 1980); Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, supra, at 263-65.
28. See, e.g., Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke 173-76 (Paul Langford ed., 1980); Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, supra, at 263-65.
29. See, e.g., Edmund Burke, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke 173-76 (Paul Langford ed., 1980); Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1791), reprinted in 4 The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, supra, at 263-65.
30. See supra note 19.
31. See infra notes 86-109 and accompanying text.
32. See, e.g., Gerald F. Seib, The Odds Squad, Wall St. J., Oct. 5, 1995, at A1; see also Tyler Bridges, You Can't Win (in Louisiana) If You Don't Play, Wall St. J., Nov. 21, 1996, at A22; Glenn R. Simpson & Michael K. Frisby, Campaign '96: Gambler Wynn, After Betting on Dole Last Year, Is Now Putting Some Big Chips on Clinton as Well, Wall St. J., June 7, 1996, at A14.
33. See, e.g., Gerald F. Seib, The Odds Squad, Wall St. J., Oct. 5, 1995, at A1; see also Tyler Bridges, You Can't Win (in Louisiana) If You Don't Play, Wall St. J., Nov. 21, 1996, at A22; Glenn R. Simpson & Michael K. Frisby, Campaign '96: Gambler Wynn, After Betting on Dole Last Year, Is Now Putting Some Big Chips on Clinton as Well, Wall St. J., June 7, 1996, at A14.
34. See, e.g., Gerald F. Seib, The Odds Squad, Wall St. J., Oct. 5, 1995, at A1; see also Tyler Bridges, You Can't Win (in Louisiana) If You Don't Play, Wall St. J., Nov. 21, 1996, at A22; Glenn R. Simpson & Michael K. Frisby, Campaign '96: Gambler Wynn, After Betting on Dole Last Year, Is Now Putting Some Big Chips on Clinton as Well, Wall St. J., June 7, 1996, at A14.
35. See Elissa Silverman, Gaming Industry Bets Big on Election, States News Serv., Dec. 30, 1996, at 1.
36. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
37. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
38. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
39. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
40. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
41. Examples include James M. Buchanan & Gordon Tullock, The Calculus of Consent (1962). On public choice generally, see Daniel A. Farber & Philip P. Frickey, Law and Public Choice: A Critical Introduction (1991); Mancur Olson, The Logic of Collective Action (1965); Arthur Denzau & Michael Munger, Legislators and Interest Groups: How Unorganized Interests Get Represented, 80 Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. 89 (1986). On the relative homogeneity of conservatives, see William N. Eskridge, Public Values in Statutory Interpretation, 137 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1007 (1989). Cf. Lili Levi, The Hard Case of Broadcast Indecency, 20 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 49, 65 (1993) (arguing that campaigners for decency in broadcasting represent conservatives with homogenous tastes and standards).
42. See John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy 589-627 (Sir John Lubbock ed., London, Routledge 1891) (1849).
43. See, e.g., John Smart Mill, Principles of Political Economy 566-70 (rev. ed., Boston, Lee & Shepard 1872) (1849) (arguing for government noninterference in most areas of belief and morals).
44. The classic study of conservatism in the United States, focusing on the period between the Civil War and the New Deal, is Clinton Rossiter, Conservatism in America (1955).
45. See 2 William Gerald McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630-1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State 785-86, 1006-24, 1093-1105 (1971); see. also Barnes v. First Parish, 6 Mass. 334 (1810) (upholding and applying state statute collecting taxes for the support of ministers in the Congregational Church); Samuel H. Beer, The Rediscovery of American Federalism 31-65 (1995).
46. See 2 William Gerald McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630-1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State 785-86, 1006-24, 1093-1105 (1971); see. also Barnes v. First Parish, 6 Mass. 334 (1810) (upholding and applying state statute collecting taxes for the support of ministers in the Congregational Church); Samuel H. Beer, The Rediscovery of American Federalism 31-65 (1995).
47. See 2 William Gerald McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630-1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State 785-86, 1006-24, 1093-1105 (1971); see. also Barnes v. First Parish, 6 Mass. 334 (1810) (upholding and applying state statute collecting taxes for the support of ministers in the Congregational Church); Samuel H. Beer, The Rediscovery of American Federalism 31-65 (1995).
48. See 2 William Gerald McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630-1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State 785-86, 1006-24, 1093-1105 (1971); see. also Barnes v. First Parish, 6 Mass. 334 (1810) (upholding and applying state statute collecting taxes for the support of ministers in the Congregational Church); Samuel H. Beer, The Rediscovery of American Federalism 31-65 (1995).
49. See Stanley Elkins & Erik McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788-1800, at 107-31 (1993).
50. On classical legal thought, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (1992) and Herbert Hovenkamp, The Marginalist Revolution in Legal Thought, 46 Vand. L. Rev. 305 (1993).
51. On classical legal thought, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (1992) and Herbert Hovenkamp, The Marginalist Revolution in Legal Thought, 46 Vand. L. Rev. 305 (1993).
52. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 36-41.
53. See id. at 171-205.
54. S3. See id. at 308-22.
55. See, e.g., Herbert Hovenkamp, The First Great Law and Economics Movement, 42 Stan. L. Rev. 993 (1990) [hereinafter Hovenkamp, First Great Law and Economics Movement]; Hovenkamp, supra note 30, at 305.
56. See Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science 3-21, 172-218 (1990).
57. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, The Limitations of Human Responsibility (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1838); see also 2 Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606-1865, at 520, 557, 571-72, 592-93, 717, 734-35, 764, 793 (1946).
58. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, The Limitations of Human Responsibility (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1838); see also 2 Joseph Dorfman, The Economic Mind in American Civilization, 1606-1865, at 520, 557, 571-72, 592-93, 717, 734-35, 764, 793 (1946).
59. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
60. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
61. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
62. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
63. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
64. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
65. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
66. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
67. See, e.g., Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429 (1895) (striking down federal income tax); Godcharles v. Wigeman, 113 Pa. 431 (1886) (striking down statute preventing payment of wages in script or other forms of paper other than lawful money) ; Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 356 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1868) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed.] (attacking interference with private property rights); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Law of Taxation 77 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1876) [hereinafter Cooley, Law of Taxation] (arguing that taxation must be for a "public" purpose); John Forrest Dillon, The Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America 196-225 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1894) (attacking legislative interference in individual property rights); Christopher G. Tiedeman, A Treatise on the Limitations of Police Power in the United States vi-viii (St. Louis, F.H. Thomas Law Book Co. 1886) (describing his book as an effort to preserve laissez faire from legislative attacks); see also Robert Stanley, Dimensions of Law in the Service of Order. Origins of the Federal Income Tax, 1861-1913 (1993); Owen M. Fiss, Troubled Beginnings of the Modem State, 1888-1910, in 8 The Oliver Wendell Holmes Devise History of the Supreme Court of the United States 75-99 (1993).
68. See, e.g., Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
69. See Pace v. Alabama, 106 U.S. 583 (1883); see also 1 Joel Prentiss Bishop, New Commentaries on Marriage, Divorce, and Separation §§ 680-695 (Chicago, T.H. Flood & Co. 1891) (describing antimiscegenation statutes, and noting in section 689 that they are constitutional under the Civil War amendments).
70. See infra notes 114-19 and accompanying text.
71. See infra notes 110-13 and accompanying text.
72. See infra notes 86-109 and accompanying text.
73. Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union 671 (7th ed. 1903).
74. Id. at 672.
75. Id. at 674.
76. Id.
77. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 36-41.
78. See id.
79. See, e.g., Loan Ass'n v. Topeka, 87 U.S. (20 Wall.) 655, 659-60 (1874) (striking down tax-financed railroad subsidy for failing to serve a "public purpose").
80. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 79-92.
81. On the makeup of the Jacksonian democrats, see Glyndon G. Van Deusen, The Jacksonian Era, 1828-1848, at 92-96 (1959) (noting that Jacksonianism was particularly popular among immigrants, especially Irish Catholics).
82. See, e.g., Charles Grier Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846, at 202-36 (1991).
83. For broadly divergent views, see Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson 350-60 (1945) (emphasizing the evangelical distrust of Jackson's nondenominationalism); Sellers, supra note 52, at 202-36; John W. Ward, Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age 101-32 (1953) (emphasizing then popular view that Jackson was a special divine messenger).
84. For broadly divergent views, see Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Age of Jackson 350-60 (1945) (emphasizing the evangelical distrust of Jackson's nondenominationalism); Sellers, supra note 52, at 202-36; John W. Ward, Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age 101-32 (1953) (emphasizing then popular view that Jackson was a special divine messenger).
85. See 2 McLoughlin, supra note 28.
86. See id. at 915-1063, 1189-262.
87. See id. (recounting the history of disestablishment and showing that the debate in virtually every instance was over freedom to organize, freedom to incorporate, or freedom from payment of a tax gathered on behalf of the established Church).
88. For the traditional view emphasizing the role of the Jacksonian movement in the separation of Church and State, see Schlesinger, supra note 53, at 350-60.
89. See Perry Miller, The Contribution of the Protestant Churches to Religious Liberty in Colonial America, 4 Church Hist. 65 (1935).
90. On religiously motivated reform movements during the years 1820-1860, see Robert H. Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination (1994).
91. See, e.g., James C. Mohr, Abortion in America: The Origins and Evolution of National Policy 119-46 (1978).
92. On the religious roots of American reform during this period, see generally Abzug, supra note 59.
93. On Scottish Realism in America, see Donald Harvey Meyer, The Instructed Conscience: The Shaping of the American National Ethic (1972).
94. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, The Elements of Moral Science 36 (Joseph L. Blau ed., Harvard Univ. Press 1963) (1835) (concluding that utilitarianism could be neither proved nor disproved from studying nature but was disproved by scripture). On the strong aversion of elite American Protestants to utilitarianism, see Daniel Walker Howe, The Unitarian Conscience: Harvard Moral Philosophy, 1805-1861, at 65-66 (1970).
95. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, The Elements of Moral Science 36 (Joseph L. Blau ed., Harvard Univ. Press 1963) (1835) (concluding that utilitarianism could be neither proved nor disproved from studying nature but was disproved by scripture). On the strong aversion of elite American Protestants to utilitarianism, see Daniel Walker Howe, The Unitarian Conscience: Harvard Moral Philosophy, 1805-1861, at 65-66 (1970).
96. See infra notes 67-74 and accompanying text.
97. John McVikar, Concluding Remarks to John Ramsey McCulloch, Outlines of Political Economy 187 (John McVikar ed., New York, Wilder & Campbell 1825).
98. See, for example, Wayland, supra note 63: [T]hough our first parents were endowed with a perfect moral constitution, yet it was necessary that God should make to them a special revelation respecting some portion of his will . . . . How much more evidently is additional light necessary when it is remembered that the moral constitution of man seems manifestly to be imperfect . . . . We act according to the impulsions of blind, headlong passion, regardless of our own best good and of the welfare of others, in despite of what we know to be the will of our Maker. Id. at 102.
99. E.g., Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations bk. I, chs. 1-2 (R.H. Campbell et al. eds., Oxford Univ. Press 1976) (1776) (showing how the division of labor evolved from each individual's continual efforts to maximize his own wants).
100. See, e.g., Daniel J. Boorstin, The Lost World of Thomas Jefferson (1948).
101. Adam Smith, The Theory of the Moral Sentiments 168 (Liberty Classics ed. 1976) (1759).
102. Id. at 168-69.
103. Id. at 386.
104. Id. at 203-04.
105. See id. at 204.
106. See Smith, supra note 69, at 204.
107. See Wayland, supra note 63; Francis Wayland, The Elements of Political Economy (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1837) [hereinafter Wayland, Political Economy].
108. See Wayland, supra note 63; Francis Wayland, The Elements of Political Economy (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1837) [hereinafter Wayland, Political Economy].
109. See Wayland, supra note 63; Francis Wayland, The Elements of Political Economy (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1837) [hereinafter Wayland, Political Economy].
110. See Wayland, supra note 63, at 79-86.
111. See id. at 102.
112. See id. at 103-06.
113. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 178-79.
114. See Gillman, supra note 1, at 1-44; Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, chs. 1-6.
115. "Old School" in Presbyterianism, or "Old Light" in Congregationalism, generally refers to the more conservative groups in those Churches who opposed the great revivals of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
116. See Sellers, supra note 52, at 232-36. See generally Abzug, supra note 59; Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (1989); Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957); George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change: Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United States (1989).
117. See Sellers, supra note 52, at 232-36. See generally Abzug, supra note 59; Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (1989); Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957); George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change: Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United States (1989).
118. See Sellers, supra note 52, at 232-36. See generally Abzug, supra note 59; Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (1989); Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957); George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change: Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United States (1989).
119. See Sellers, supra note 52, at 232-36. See generally Abzug, supra note 59; Nathan O. Hatch, The Democratization of American Christianity (1989); Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War (1957); George M. Thomas, Revivalism and Cultural Change: Christianity, Nation Building, and the Market in the Nineteenth-Century United States (1989).
120. See Abzug, supra note 59, at 102.
121. See Sellers, supra note 52, at 261-63.
122. See Lester G. Lindley, Contract, Economic Change, and the Search for Order in Industrializing America 29 (1993).
123. See John L. Thomas, The Law of Lotteries, Frauds and Obscenity in the Mails 4 (1900) (noting that lotteries were used, among other purposes, to finance dredging of the Hudson river, for the construction of orphanages, and building schools); see also Joel Prentiss Bishop, Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes 582-87 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1873). See generally Stephen A. Siegel, Joel Bishop's Orthodoxy, 13 Law & Hist. Rev. 215 (1995).
124. See John L. Thomas, The Law of Lotteries, Frauds and Obscenity in the Mails 4 (1900) (noting that lotteries were used, among other purposes, to finance dredging of the Hudson river, for the construction of orphanages, and building schools); see also Joel Prentiss Bishop, Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes 582-87 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1873). See generally Stephen A. Siegel, Joel Bishop's Orthodoxy, 13 Law & Hist. Rev. 215 (1995).
125. See John L. Thomas, The Law of Lotteries, Frauds and Obscenity in the Mails 4 (1900) (noting that lotteries were used, among other purposes, to finance dredging of the Hudson river, for the construction of orphanages, and building schools); see also Joel Prentiss Bishop, Commentaries on the Law of Statutory Crimes 582-87 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co. 1873). See generally Stephen A. Siegel, Joel Bishop's Orthodoxy, 13 Law & Hist. Rev. 215 (1995).
126. See 2 Anson Phelps Stokes, Church and State in the United States 26 (1950).
127. See John Samuel Ezell, Fortune's Merry Wheel: The Lottery in America 20-25 (1960).
128. See A.R. Spofford, Lotteries in American History, in Annual Report of the American Historical Association 177 (Washington, G.P.O. 1893).
129. See 1 Joseph Stancliffe Davis, Essays in the Earlier History of American Corporations 349, 380-81, 385 (1965); id. app. B at 520-22.
130. See 1 J. Continental Cong. 535 (1775), quoted in Thomas, supra note 87, at 6.
131. See Thomas, supra note 87, at 6-7.
132. See id. at 4.
133. The sharp switch in viewpoint was motivated substantially by Job Tyson, Brief Survey of the Great Extent and Evil Tendencies of the Lottery System, as Existing in the United States (Philadelphia, W. Brown 1833), which argued that lotteries were conducive to sloth and immorality, and particularly harsh on the poor, who were often seduced by them. Tyson produced evidence from Philadelphia county that lottery ticket purchases were common causes of insolvency, and that they frequently contributed to embezzlement and forgery. See Lindley, supra note 86, at 64-68.
134. See 2 Stokes, supra note 88, at 26.
135. It held that the legislature could competently place a time limit that had not been express, but must have been implied, in the preexisting license. See Phalen v. Virginia, 49 U.S. (8 How.) 163, 168 (1850).
136. Id. at 168.
137. See Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U.S. 814 (1880).
138. Id. at 815.
139. Id. at 818.
140. Id.
141. Id.
142. Stone, 101 U.S. at 819. In this sense, Stone is an important precursor of the public trust doctrine, which prohibited a state from granting away land which it held in a fictional trust for the public. See Illinois Cent. R.R. v. Illinois, 146 U.S. 387 (1892); David P. Currie, The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The Second Century, 1888-1986, at 10-12 (1990).
143. Stone, 101 U.S. at 819. In this sense, Stone is an important precursor of the public trust doctrine, which prohibited a state from granting away land which it held in a fictional trust for the public. See Illinois Cent. R.R. v. Illinois, 146 U.S. 387 (1892); David P. Currie, The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The Second Century, 1888-1986, at 10-12 (1990).
144. Currie, supra note 104, at 821; see also Douglas v. Kentucky, 168 U.S. 488 (1897) (permitting Kentucky to amend its constitution so as to require municipalities to renege on preexisting lottery contracts).
145. See Ezell, supra note 89, at 263-69; Lindley, supra note 86, at 70-75.
146. 188 U.S. 321 (1903).
147. Id. at 356.
148. Id. at 357-58.
149. See Abzug, supra note 59, at 82.
150. See id. at 102; Ian R. Tyrrell, Sobering Up: From Temperance to Prohibition in Antebellum America, 1800-1860, at 159-224 (1979).
151. See Tyrrell, supra note 111. For a good, brief survey of the law, see Ernst Freund, The Police Power: Public Policy and Constitutional Rights 192-219 (1904).
152. See, e.g., Samuels v. McCurdy, 267 U.S. 188 (1924) (holding that the state may seize liquor in the home that had been lawfully acquired for home consumption, but subsequently forbidden by statute).
153. See, Paul E. Johnson, A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (1978); Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Prelude to Abolitionism: Sabbatarian Politics and the Rise of the Second Party System, 58 J. Am. Hist. 316 (1971).
154. See, Paul E. Johnson, A Shopkeeper's Millennium: Society and Revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (1978); Bertram Wyatt-Brown, Prelude to Abolitionism: Sabbatarian Politics and the Rise of the Second Party System, 58 J. Am. Hist. 316 (1971).
155. See Abzug, supra note 59, at 112.
156. See id. at 108-16.
157. See generally Sellers, supra note 52.
158. See infra notes 175-80 and accompanying text.
159. On expansion of economic liberty of contract in the state courts during this time, see Gillman, supra note 1, at 61-100. But the same courts both upheld statutes and cited common-law principles that otherwise perfectly lawful contracts became unenforceable if made on Sunday. See, e.g., Hulet v. Stratton, 59 Mass. (5 Cush.) 539 (1850) (holding that a contract to sell a horse is unenforceable when made on Sunday); Murphy v. Simpson, 53 Ky. (14 B. Mon.) 419 (1854) (same, interpreting a statute); Lyon v. Strong, 6 Vt. 219, 224-25 (1834) (same, interpreting a statute: "No court will lend its aid to a man who founds his cause of action upon an illegal or immoral act . . . . The contract is bottomed in malum prohibitum of a very serious nature . . . ." Finding authorities "clear and decisive" as to nonenforceability of contracts made on the Sabbath); Sayre v. Wheeler, 31 Iowa 112 (1870) (refusing to enforce promissory note executed on Sunday; applying statute); Adams v. Hamell, 2 Doug. 73 (Mich. 1845) (same); Pike v. King, 16 Iowa 49 (1864) (interpreting statute, refusing to enforce contract for sale of property made on Sunday: "[B]ut this occurred on the Lord's day, and a party cannot be heard to allege his own unlawful act."). For numerous additional decisions, see Elisha Greenhood, The Doctrine of Public Policy in the Law of Contracts: Reduced to Rules 549-51 (Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1886).
160. The classic discussion of this transformation is Joseph Haroutunian, Piety Versus Moralism: The Passing of the New England Theology (1932).
161. For the historical roots of these developments in ethics, see Norman Fiering, Moral Philosophy at Seventeenth Century Harvard: A Discipline in Transition (1981).
162. See Meyer, supra note 62, at 89-91.
163. See Francis Bowen, Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion (Boston, C.C. Little & J. Brown 1849).
164. See Wayland, supra note 63.
165. Archibald Alexander, Outlines of Moral Science 209-10 (New York, Charles Scribner 1852).
166. See Wayland, supra note 63, at 17. On the scientific status accorded to moral science, see Herbert Hovenkamp, Science and Religion in America, 1800-1860, at 100-15 (1978).
167. Henry Vethake, The Principles of Political Economy (New York, A.M. Kelley 1971) (1844). On Vethake, see Joseph Dorfman & R.G. Tugwell, Early American Policy: Six Columbia Contributors 155-204 (1960).
168. Henry Vethake, The Principles of Political Economy (New York, A.M. Kelley 1971) (1844). On Vethake, see Joseph Dorfman & R.G. Tugwell, Early American Policy: Six Columbia Contributors 155-204 (1960).
169. Vethake, supra note 127, at 14.
170. Id.
171. Id.
172. See id. at 322-31 (attacking wealth distribution legislation and unionism); id. at 332-35 (attacking hours legislation as costing workers more in lost wages than they would gain from reduced hours of labor); id. at 343-56 (attacking welfare for the poor and unemployment compensation).
173. Id. at 306.
174. Vethake, supra note 127, at 307.
175. Id. at 307.
176. See supra notes 67-74 and accompanying text.
177. Wayland, Political Economy, supra note 75, at 131.
178. Wayland, supra note 63, at 100.
179. See id. at 100-02.
180. Id. at 327.
181. Id.
182. See, e.g., Meyer, supra note 62, at 123-32; Ross, supra note 35.
183. See Freund, supra note 112, § 500, at 537.
184. Id. § 10, at 7.
185. Id.
186. Id.
187. Id. § 12, at 8.
188. Freund, supra note 112, § 13, at 9.
189. Freund then found three "spheres of activities" subject to the police power: first is a "conceded sphere" involving public safety, order and morals, where the policy power is continually growing. Second is a "debatable sphere" concerning the proper production and distribution of wealth; here, legislation is still in an "experimental stage." Third is an "exempt sphere" of moral, intellectual and political movements where the Constitution gives individuals freedom from state control. Importantly, the spheres "may overlap," leading to complex questions. For example, "religion and speech and press are primarily free, but that does not prevent them from being subjected to restraints in the interest of good order or morality." Id. § 15, at 11. He added that "[v]ery little difficulty has so far been encountered in the mutual adjustment of these interests." Id.
190. Id. § 188, at 173.
191. See id. § 204, at 192-93. Freund concluded: It is certainly the more conservative view to look upon the control of the liquor traffic as a means of protecting the community from crime and the financial burdens of pauperism, but it is also clear that the police power, resting upon this incontestable ground, in reality is turned into a power to protect the weak individual from his own weakness, into a power to prevent the wasteful expenditure of money and time, and finally into a power to impose upon the minority the sentiments or prejudices of the majority of the community, as to what is morally right and good. Id.
192. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 199-206.
193. See, e.g., 1 Elizabeth Flower & Murray G. Murphey, A History of Philosophy in America 203 (1977) ("Whatever the label, this realism is now uniformly regarded as a wasteland of secondhand ideas servicing orthodox Calvinism . . . ."); Herbert W. Schneider, A History of American Philosophy 196 (2d ed. 1963) (placing the period under the general heading of "orthodoxy" and describing most of it as "wormy knowledge").
194. See, e.g., 1 Elizabeth Flower & Murray G. Murphey, A History of Philosophy in America 203 (1977) ("Whatever the label, this realism is now uniformly regarded as a wasteland of secondhand ideas servicing orthodox Calvinism . . . ."); Herbert W. Schneider, A History of American Philosophy 196 (2d ed. 1963) (placing the period under the general heading of "orthodoxy" and describing most of it as "wormy knowledge").
195. On contractarianism in American Puritan theology, see Perry Miller, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century 365-462 (1961).
196. Wayland, supra note 63, at 306.
197. Id.
198. See id. at 313.
199. 157. See id. at 314.
200. See id. at 315.
201. See Wayland, supra note 63, at 315.
202. See, id. at 318.
203. See Biaise Pascal, Pensees: The Provincial Letters 233, 418 (W.F. Trotter trans., E.P. Dutton & Co. 1958) (1662).
204. See id. at 322-23.
205. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States 115 (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1842) (arguing that the central goal of higher education is not learning but building of character); see also Meyer, supra note 62; Howard Miller, The Revolutionary College: American Presbyterian Higher Education, 1707-1837 (1976).
206. See, e.g., Francis Wayland, Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States 115 (Boston, Gould, Kendall & Lincoln 1842) (arguing that the central goal of higher education is not learning but building of character); see also Meyer, supra note 62; Howard Miller, The Revolutionary College: American Presbyterian Higher Education, 1707-1837 (1976).
207. For various contemporary definitions of the "police power" see Manigault v. Springs, 199 U.S. 473, 480 (1905) (Brown, J.); Thomas M. Cooley, A Treatise on the Constitutional Limitations Which Rest upon the Legislative Power of the States of the American Union ch. 16, especially at 704-05 (Boston, Little, Brown, & Co., 6th ed. 1890) [hereinafter Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 6th ed.]. See also Freund, supra note 112, § 8, at 6 (defining the police power as laws that are "not confined to the prohibition of wrongful acts," and justified by the proposition "that every individual must submit to such restraints in the exercise of his liberty or of his rights of property as may be required to remove or reduce the danger of the abuse of these rights on the part of those who are unskillful, careless or unscrupulous").
208. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 1st ed., supra note 37.
209. Cooley, Law of Taxation, supra note 37.
210. William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Thomas M. Cooley ed., Chicago, Callaghan & Co. 1871).
211. See Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 38-39.
212. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 6th ed., supra note 164, at 704.
213. See id. at 708.
214. Id. at 719-20.
215. See id. at 436.
216. 198 U.S. 45 (1905).
217. Cooley, Constitutional Limitations 6th ed., supra note 164, at 584.
218. Id.
219. However, he also recognized that the argument involved a certain amount of discrimination against those not holding Sunday sacred. For example, "the Jew who is forced to respect the first day of the week, when his conscience requires of him the observance of the seventh also, may plausibly urge that the law discriminates against his religion." Id. at 584.
220. Freund, supra note 112, at 169.
221. Id.
222. Id. at 170.
223. Id.
224. See Tiedeman, supra note 37. On Tiedeman generally, see David N. Mayer, The Jurisprudence of Christopher G. Tiedeman: A Study in the Failure of Laissez Faire Constitutionalism, 55 Mo. L. Rev. 92 (1990).
225. Tiedeman, supra note 37, at 149; see also Christopher G. Tiedeman, The Unwritten Constitution of the United States: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Fundamentals of American Constitutional Law (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons 1890).
226. Tiedeman, supra note 37, at 150.
227. See id. at 153.
228. See id. at 155-56.
229. Id. at 156.
230. See Hovenkamp, First Great Law and Economics Movement, supra note 34; Herbert Hovenkamp, The Mind and Heart of Progressive Legal Thought, 81 Iowa L. Rev. 149 (1995).
231. See Hovenkamp, First Great Law and Economics Movement, supra note 34; Herbert Hovenkamp, The Mind and Heart of Progressive Legal Thought, 81 Iowa L. Rev. 149 (1995).
232. See, e.g., Robert Morse Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920 (1982); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (1955).
233. See, e.g., Robert Morse Crunden, Ministers of Reform: The Progressives' Achievement in American Civilization, 1889-1920 (1982); Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform (1955).
234. See, e.g., Edward A. Ross, Sin and Society: An Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity ch. 2, at 21-42 (1907) (arguing that wealthy entrepreneurs and corporations should be counted as more immoral than the common criminals who injure their victims one at a time); cf. Rational Basis of Legal Institutions (John H. Wigmore & Albert Kocourek eds., 1923); James Barr Ames, Law and Morals, 22 Harv. L. Rev. 97 (1908) (arguing that the common law became increasingly ethical as society became more sophisticated).
235. See, e.g., Edward A. Ross, Sin and Society: An Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity ch. 2, at 21-42 (1907) (arguing that wealthy entrepreneurs and corporations should be counted as more immoral than the common criminals who injure their victims one at a time); cf. Rational Basis of Legal Institutions (John H. Wigmore & Albert Kocourek eds., 1923); James Barr Ames, Law and Morals, 22 Harv. L. Rev. 97 (1908) (arguing that the common law became increasingly ethical as society became more sophisticated).
236. See, e.g., Edward A. Ross, Sin and Society: An Analysis of Latter-Day Iniquity ch. 2, at 21-42 (1907) (arguing that wealthy entrepreneurs and corporations should be counted as more immoral than the common criminals who injure their victims one at a time); cf. Rational Basis of Legal Institutions (John H. Wigmore & Albert Kocourek eds., 1923); James Barr Ames, Law and Morals, 22 Harv. L. Rev. 97 (1908) (arguing that the common law became increasingly ethical as society became more sophisticated).
237. 198 U.S. 45, 57, 62 (1905).
238. See Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365, 391-94 (1926). On the Court's use of externalities to permit regulation, see Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 199-205.
239. Among the numerous decisions in the Supreme Court, see, for example, Treigle v. Acme Homestead Ass'n, 297 U.S. 189, 194 (1936); New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262, 304 (1932) (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (finding that a statute should have been upheld on public welfare grounds other than health, safety, or morals); Near v. Minnesota, 283 U.S. 697, 707 (1931) (arguing that police power should be limited to statutes that appropriately regulate health, safety or morals); id. at 707 (Butler, J., dissenting) (same); Nectow v. Cambridge, 277 U.S. 183, 187 (1928) (requiring that regulation have a "substantial relation to the public health, the public morals, the public safety or the public welfare in its proper sense"); Adams v. Tanner, 244 U.S. 590, 593 (1917) ("[T]here is nothing in the nature of the [regulated] business . . . that in any way threatens or endangers the public health, safety, or morals."); Rast v. Van Deman, 240 U.S. 342, 348 (1916); Tanner v. Little, 240 U.S. 369, 372 (1916); Coppage v. Kansas, 236 U.S. 1, 16 (1915) (striking down statute forbidding employers from requiring employees to sign promises that they would not join unions; finding no relationship between the act and the "public health, safety, morals, or general welfare"); Lochner, 198 U.S. at 45 (concluding that bakers' hours statute could not be sustained "as a valid exercise of the police power to protect the public health, safety, morals, or general welfare"); Austin v. Tennessee, 179 U.S. 343, 349 (1900) (upholding a statute restricting cigarette sales as bona fide regulation of health, safety, or morals, or the abatement of a public nuisance). See also Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon, 260 U.S. 393, 417 (1922) (Brandeis, J., dissenting) (objecting that regulatory statute cannot constitute a taking under Fourteenth and Fifth Amendments if it is designed "to protect the public health, safety or morals from dangers threatened"); Holden v. Hardy, 169 U.S. 366, 391 (1898) (reviewing older decisions).
240. 208 U.S. 412 (1908).
241. See Louis D. Brandeis, Brief for Defendant in Error, Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) (No. 107) [hereinafter Brandeis Brief], reprinted in 16 Landmark Briefs and Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States: Constitutional Law 63 (Philip B. Kurland & Gerhard Casper eds., 1975); see also Mary E. Becker, From Muller v. Oregon to Fetal Vulnerability Policies, 53 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1219, 1221-25 (1986); David P. Bryden, Brandeis's Facts, 1984 Const. Comm. 281.
242. See Louis D. Brandeis, Brief for Defendant in Error, Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) (No. 107) [hereinafter Brandeis Brief], reprinted in 16 Landmark Briefs and Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States: Constitutional Law 63 (Philip B. Kurland & Gerhard Casper eds., 1975); see also Mary E. Becker, From Muller v. Oregon to Fetal Vulnerability Policies, 53 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1219, 1221-25 (1986); David P. Bryden, Brandeis's Facts, 1984 Const. Comm. 281.
243. See Louis D. Brandeis, Brief for Defendant in Error, Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908) (No. 107) [hereinafter Brandeis Brief], reprinted in 16 Landmark Briefs and Arguments of the Supreme Court of the United States: Constitutional Law 63 (Philip B. Kurland & Gerhard Casper eds., 1975); see also Mary E. Becker, From Muller v. Oregon to Fetal Vulnerability Policies, 53 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1219, 1221-25 (1986); David P. Bryden, Brandeis's Facts, 1984 Const. Comm. 281.
244. See Brandeis Brief, supra note 194, at 50-51; Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 202-03.
245. See Brandeis Brief, supra note 194, at 50-51; Hovenkamp, Enterprise, supra note 1, at 202-03.
246. Brandeis Brief, supra note 194, at 2842.
247. See id. at 42-44.
248. See id. at 44-46.
249. See id. at 106-09 (health); id. at 109 (safety); id. at 109-11 (morals).
250. Id. at 44.
251. See Brandeis Brief, supra note 194, at 44.