Reassessing the Cardiac Risk Profile in Chronic Hemodialysis Patients: A Hypothesis on the Role of Oxidant Stress and Other Non-Traditional Cardiac Risk Factors

Journal of the American Society of Nephrology

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 475-486

  Becker, Bryan N ^a,d   Himmelfarb, Jonathan ^b   Henrich, William L ^c   Hakim, Raymond M ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b MAINE MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c MEDICAL COLLEGE OF OHIO   (United States)

^d VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MODEL; HEART DISEASE; HUMAN; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSIOLOGY; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; TIME;

HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; MODELS, CARDIOVASCULAR; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RENAL DIALYSIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 0031093278     PISSN: 10466673     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Tyroler HA: Nutrition and coronary heart disease epidemiology. Adv Exp Med Biol 369: 7-19, 1995
2. Held P, Levin N, Port F: Cardiac disease in chronic uremia: An overview. In Cardiac Dysfunction in Chronic Uremia, edited by Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, pp 3-17
3. Rostand SG, Brunzell JD, Cannon RO III, Victor RG: Cardiovascular complications in renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2: 1053-1062, 1991
4. United States Renal Data System: 1993 Annual Data Report, Bethesda, National Institutes of Health, National Institutes of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease, 1993
5. Harnett JD, Parfrey PS: Cardiac disease in uremia. Semin Nephrol 14: 245-252, 1994
6. Lindner A, Charra B, Sherrard DJ, Scribner BH: Accelerated atherosclerosis in prolong maintenance hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 290: 697-701, 1974
7. Ansari A, Kaupke CJ, Vaziri ND, Miller R, Barbari B: Cardiac pathology in patients with end-stage renal disease maintained on hemodialysis. Int J Artif Organs 16: 31-36, 1993
8. Clyne N, Lins L-E, Pehrsson SK: Occurrence and significance of heart disease in uremia: An autopsy study. Scand J Urol Nephrol 20: 307-311, 1986
9. Anderson KM, Wilson PW, Odell PM, Kannel WB: An updated coronary risk profile: A statement for health professionals. Circulation 83: 356-362, 1991
10. Lauer MJ, Evans JC, Levy D: Prognostic implications of subclinical left ventricular dilatation in men free of overt cardiovascular disease (The Framingham Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 70: 1180-1184, 1992
11. Scanu AM, Lawn RM, Berg K: Lipoprotein (a) and atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med 115: 209-218, 1991
12. Nygard O, Vollset SE, Refsum H, Stensvold I, Tverdal A, Nordrehaug JE, Ueland PM, Kvale G: Total plasma homocysteine and cardiovascular risk profile. JAMA 274: 1526-1533, 1995
13. Pomerantz KB, Nicholson AC, Hajjar DP: Signal transduction in atherosclerosis: Second messengers and regulation of cellular cholesterol trafficking. Adv Exp Med Biol 369: 49-64, 1995
14. Bjorkerud B, Bjorkerud S: Contrary effects of lightly and strongly oxidized LDL with potent promotion of growth versus apoptosis on arterial smooth muscle cell, macrophages and fibroblasts. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 16: 416-424, 1996
15. Libby P: Molecular bases of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 91: 2844-2850, 1995
16. Liao L, Aw TY, Kvietys PR, Granger DN: Oxidized LDL-induced microvascular dysfunction: Dependence on oxidation procedure. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15: 2305-2311, 1995
17. Rodrioguez-Reguero JJ, Iglesias-Cubero G, Martinez-Celada M, Fueyo JR, Sanchez-Posada I, Braga S, Cortina A: Interrelationships between lipoprotein (a) and other cardiovascular risk factors. Cardiology 86: 432-435, 1995
18. Nygard O, Vollset SE, Refsum H, Stensvold I, Tverdal A, Nordrehaug JE, Ueland M, Kvale G: Total plasma homocysteine and cardiovascular risk profile: The Hordalund homocysteine study. JAMA 274: 1526-1533, 1995
19. Lowrie EG, Lew NL: Death risk in hemodialysis patients: The predictive value of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rate differences between facilities. Am J Kidney Dis 15: 458-482, 1990
20. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Murray DC, Barre PE: Hypertension, cardiomyopathy, cardiac morbidity, and mortality in ESRD [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 529, 1995
21. Charra B, Calemard E, Ruffet M, Chazot C, Terrat JC, Vanel T, Laurent G: Survival as an index of adequacy of dialysis. Kidney Int 41: 1286-1291, 1992
22. Neff MS, Esier AR, Slifkin RF, Baum M, Baez A, Gupta S, Amarga E: Patients surviving 10 years of hemodialysis. Am J Med 74: 996-1004, 1983
23. Foley RN, Parfrey PS: Risk factors for cardiac morbidity and mortality in dialysis patients. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 3: 608-614, 1994
24. Cheung AK, Wu LL, Kablitz C, Leypoldt JK: Atherogenic lipids and lipoproteins in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 22: 271-276, 1993
25. Avram MM, Goldwasser P, Burrell DE, Antignani A, Fein PA, Mittman N: The uremic dyslipidemia: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study. Am J Kidney Dis 20: 324-335, 1992
26. Senti M, Romero R, Pedro-Botet J, Pelegri A, Nogues X, Rubies-Prat J: Lipoprotein abnormalities in hyperlipidemic and normolipidemic men on hemodialysis with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 41: 1394-1399, 1992
27. Chan MK, Varghese Z, Moorhead JK: Lipid abnormalities in uremia, dialysis, and transplantation. Kidney Int 19: 625-637, 1981
28. Steinberg D: Role of oxidized LDL and antioxidants in atherosclerosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 369: 39-48, 1995
29. Parthasarathy S, Wieland E, Steinberg D: A role for endothelial cell lipoxygenase in the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86: 1046-1050, 1988
30. Bjorkhem I, Henrikkson-Freyschuss A, Breuer O, Diczfalusy U, Bergland L, Henrikkson P: The antioxidant butylated hydroxytoluene protects against atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb 11: 15-22, 1991
31. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JD, Witzum JL: Beyond cholesterol: Modifications of low density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med 320: 915-924, 1989
32. Heery JM, Kozak M, Stafforini DM, Jones DA, Zimmerman GA, McIntyre TM, Prescott SM: Oxidatively modified LDL contains phospholipids with platelet-activating-factor-like activity and stimulates the growth of smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest 96: 2322-2330, 1995
33. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D: Endothelial cell-derived chemotactic activity for mouse peritoneal macrophages and the effects of modified forms of low density lipoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82: 5949-5953, 1985
34. Thomas JP, Geiger PG, Girotti AW: Lethal damage to endothelial cells by oxidized low density lipoprotein: Role of selenoperoxidases in cytoprotection against lipid hydroperoxide-mediated and iron-mediated reactions. J Lipid Res 332: 218-220, 1993
35. Stiko-Rahm A, Hultgardh-Nilsson A, Regnstrom J, Hamsten A, Nilsson J: Native and oxidized LDL enhances production of PDGF AA and the surface expression of PDGF receptors in cultured human smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb 12: 1089-1099, 1992
36. Palinski W, Yla-Herttuala S, Rosenfeld ME, Butler SW, Socher SS, Parthasarathy S, Curtiss LK, Witzum JL: Antisera and monoclonal antibodies specific for epitopes generated during oxidative modification of low density lipoproteins. Arteriosclerosis 10: 325-335, 1990
37. Salonen JT, Yla-Herttuala S, Yamamoto R, Butler S, Korpela H, Salonen R, Nyyssonen K, Palinski W, Witzum JL: Autoantibody against oxidized LDL and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Lancet 339: 883-887, 1992
38. Bergmark C, Wu R, deFaire U, Lefvert AK, Swedenborg J: Patients with early onset peripheral vascular disease have increased levels of autoantibodies against oxidized LDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15: 441-445, 1995
39. Kacharava AG, Tertov VV, Orekhov AN: Autoantibodies against low-density lipoprotein and atherogenic potential of blood. Ann Med 25: 551-556, 1993
40. Yla-Herttuala S, Palinski W, Butler SW, Picard S, Steinberg D, Witzum JL: Rabbit and human atherosclerotic lesions contain IgG that recognizes epitopes of oxidized LDL. Arterioscler Thromb 14: 32-40, 1994
41. Horkko S, Savolainen MJ, Kervinen K, Kesaniemi YA: Carbamylation-induced alterations in low-density lipoprotein metabolism. Kidney Int 41: 1175-1181, 1992
42. Horkko S, Huttenen K, Kervinen K, Kesaniemi Y: Decreased clearance of uremic and mildly carbamylated low-density lipoprotein. Eur J Clin Invest 24: 105-113, 1994
43. Maggi E, Bellazi R, Falaschi F, Frattoni A, Perani G, Finardi G, Gazo A: Enhanced LDL oxidation in uremic patients: An additional mechanism for accelerated atherosclerosis? Kidney Int 45: 876-883, 1994
44. Jackson P, Loughrey CM, Lightbody JH, McNamee PT, Young IS: Effect of hemodialysis on total antioxidant capacity and serum antioxidants in patients with chronic renal failure. Clin Chem 41: 1135-1138, 1995
45. Jain SK, Abreo K, Duett J, Sella ML: Lipofuscin products, lipid peroxides and aluminum accumulation in red blood cells of hemodialyzed patients. Am J Nephrol 15: 306-311, 1995
46. Luciak M, Trznadel K: Free oxygen species metabolism during hemodialysis with different membranes. Nephrol Dial Transplant 6[Suppl 3]: 66-70, 1991
47. Sutherland WHF, Walker RJ, Ball MJ, Stapley SA, Robertson MC: Oxidation of low density lipoproteins from patients with renal failure or renal transplants. Kidney Int 48: 227-236, 1995
48. Schulz T, Schiffl H, Scheithe R, Hrboticky N, Lorenz R: Preserved antioxidative defense of lipoproteins in renal failure and during hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 25: 564-571, 1995
49. Carbonneau MA, Peuchant E, Sess D, Canioni P, Clerc M: Free and bound malondialdehyde measured as thiobarbituric acid adduct by HPLC in serum and plasma. Clin Chem 37: 1423-1429, 1991
50. Itabe H, Yamamoto H, Imanaka T, Shimamura K, Uchiyama H, Kimura J, Sanaka T, Hata Y, Takano T: Sensitive detection of oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein using a monoclonal antibody. J Lipid Res 37: 45-53, 1996
51. Maggi E, Bellazi R, Gazo A, Seccia M, Bellomo G: Autoantibodies against oxidatively-modified LDL in uremic patients undergoing dialysis. Kidney Int 46: 869-876, 1994
52. Scanu AM, Fless GM: Lipoprotein (a) heterogeneity and biological relevance. J Clin Invest 85: 1709-1715, 1990
53. Cressmann MD, Heyka RJ, Paganini EP, O'Neil J, Skibinski CI, Hoff HF: Lipoprotein(a) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in hemodialysis patients. Circulation 86: 475-482, 1992
54. Hajjar KA, Gavish D, Breslow JL, Nachman RL: Lipoprotein (a) modulation of endothelial cell surface fibrinolysis and its potential role in atherosclerosis. Nature 339: 301-303, 1989
55. Grainger DJ, Kirschenlohr HL, Metcalfe JC, Weissberg PL, Wade DP, Lawn RM: Proliferation of human smooth muscle cells promoted by lipoprotein (a). Science 260: 1655-1658, 1993
56. Maher VMG, Brown BG, Marcovina SM, Hillger LA, Zhao X-Q, Albers JJ: Effects of lowering elevated LDL cholesterol on the cardiovascular risk of lipoprotein (a). JAMA 274: 1771-1774, 1995
57. Kronenburg F, Konig P, Neyer U, Auinger M, Pribasnig A, Lang U, Reitinger J, Pinter G, Utermann G, Dieplinger H: Multicenter study of lipoprotein (a) and apolipoprotein (a) phenotypes in patients with end-stage renal disease treated by hemodialysis or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 110-120, 1995
58. Kronenberg F, Kathrein H, Konig P, Neyer U, Sturm W, Lhotta K, Grochenig E, Utermann G, Dieplinger H: Apolipoprotein(a) phenotypes predict the risk for carotid atherosclerosis in patients with end-stage renal disease. Arterioscler Thromb 14: 1405-1411, 1994
59. Gey KF, Brubacher GB, Stahelin S: Plasma levels of antioxidant vitamins in relation to ischemic heart disease and cancer Clin Nutr 45: 1368-1377, 1987
60. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Willett WC: Dietary intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men. N Engl J Med 328: 1450-1456, 1993
61. Jha P, Flather M, Lonn E, Faroukh M, Yusuf S: The antioxidant vitamins and cardiovascular disease: A critical review of epidemiologic and clinical trial data. Ann Intern Med 123: 860-872, 1995
62. Hodis HN, Mack WJ, Labree L, Cashin-Hemphill L, Sevanian A, Johnson R, Azen SP: Serial coronary angiographic evidence that antioxidant vitamin intake reduces progression of coronary artery atherosclerosis. J Am Med Assoc 273: 1849-1854, 1995
63. Anderson TJ, Meredith IT, Yeung AC, Frei B, Selwyn AP, Ganz P: The effect of cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant therapy on endothelium-dependent coronary vasomotion. N Engl J Med 332: 488-493, 1995
64. Levine GN, Frei B, Kylouris SN, Gerhard MD, Keaney JF, Vita JA: Ascorbic acid reverses endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 93: 1107-1113, 1996
65. Roselaar SE, Nazhat NB, Winyard PG, Jones P, Cunningham J, Blake DR: Detection of oxidants in uremic plasma by electron spin resonance spectroscopy. Kidney Int 48: 199-206, 1995
66. Witko-Sarsat V, Friedlander M, Capeillere-Blandin C, Nguyen-Khoa AT, Nguyen A, Zingraff J, Jungers P, Descamps-Latscha B: Advanced oxidation protein products as a novel marker of oxidative stress in uremia. Kidney Int 49: 1304-1313, 1996
67. Price SR, Mitch WE: Metabolic acidosis and uremic toxicity: Protein and amino acid metabolism. Semin Nephrol 14: 232-237, 1994
68. Ponka A, Kuhlback B: Serum ascorbic acid in patients undergoing chronic hemodialysis. Acta Med Scand 213: 305-307, 1983
69. Cohen JD, Viljoen M, Clifford D, DeOliveria AA, Veriava Y, Milne FJ: Plasma vitamin E levels in a chronically hemolyzing group of dialysis patients Clin Nephrol 25: 42-47, 1986.
70. Foote JW, Hinks LJ, Lloyd B: Reduced plasma and white blood cell selenium levels in hemodialysis patients. Clin Chim Acta 164: 323-328, 1987
71. Paul JL, Sail ND, Soni T, Poignet JL, Lindenbaum A, Man NK, Moatti N, Raichvarg D: Lipid peroxidation abnormalities in hemodialyzed patients. Nephron 64: 106-109, 1993
72. Acchiardo SR, Moore LW, Latour PA: Malnutrition as the main factor in morbidity and mortality of dialysis patients. Kidney Int 24[Suppl 26]: 199-203, 1983
73. Avram MM, Mittman N: Malnutrition in uremia. Semin Nephrol 14: 238-244, 1994
74. Churchill DN, Taylor DW, Cook RJ, LaPlante P, Barre P, Cartier P, Fay W, Goldstein M, Jindal K, Mandin H, McKenzie JK, Muirhead N, Parfrey PS, Posen GA, Slaughter D, Ulan RA, Werb R: Canadian hemodialysis morbidity study. Am J Kidney Dis 19: 214-234, 1992
75. Ritz E, Vallance P, Nowicki M: The effect of malnutrition on cardiovascular mortality in dialysis patients: Is L-arginine the answer? Nephrol Dial Transplant 9: 129-130, 1994
76. Vallance OP, Leone A, Calver A, Collier J, Moncada S: Accumulation of an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis in chronic renal failure. Lancet 339: 572-575, 1992
77. Schini VB, Vanhoutte PM: Role of the L-arginine-nitric oxide pathway in vascular smooth muscle. Ear Heart J 14[Suppl I]: 16-21, 1993.
78. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Murray DC, Barre PE: Hypoalbuminemia: A major risk factor for cardiac disease in ESRD [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 529, 1995
79. Tschope W, Koch M, Thomas B, Ritz E: Serum lipids predict cardiac death in diabetic patients on maintenance hemodialysis (results of a prospective study). Nephron 64: 354-358, 1993
80. Himmelfarb J, Ault K, Holbrook D, Leeber D, Hakim R: Intradialytic granulocyte reactive oxygen species production: A prospective crossover trial. J Am Soc Nephrol 4: 178-186, 1993
81. Loughrey CM, Young IS, Lightbody JH, McMaster D, McNamee PT, Trimble ER: Oxidative stress in hemodialysis. QJM 87: 679-683, 1994
82. Toborek M, Wasik T, Drodz M, Klin M, Magner-Wrobel K, Kopieczna-Grzebieniak E: Effect of hemodialysis on lipid peroxidation and antioxidant system in patients with chronic renal failure. Metabolism 41: 1229-1232, 1992
83. Zima T, Haragsim L, Stipek S, Bartova V, Nemecek K: Lipid peroxidation on dialysis membranes. Biochem Mol Biol Int 29: 531-537, 1993
84. Descamps-Latsha B, Goldfarb B, Nguyen AT: Establishing the relationship between complement activation and stimulation of phagocyte oxidative metabolism in hemodialyzed patients: A randomized prospective study. Nephron 59: 279-285, 1991
85. Nguyen AT, Lethia C, Zingraff J, Herbelin A, Naret C, Descamps-Latsha B: Hemodialysis membrane-induced activation of phagocyte oxidative metabolism detected in vivo and in vitro with microamounts of whole blood. Kidney Int 28: 158-167, 1985
86. Descamps-Latscha B, Herbelin A, Nguyen AT, Zingraff J, Jungers P, Chatenoud L: Immune system dysregulation in uremia. Semin Nephrol 14: 253-260, 1994
87. Markert M, Heirli C, Kuwahara T, Frei J, Wauters JP: Polymorphonuclear neutrophil oxidative metabolism during dialysis: A comparative study with 5 new and reused membranes. Clin Nephrol 29: 129-136, 1988
88. Schaefer R, Ritz E, Deppisch R, Veinken J: Assembly of terminal C5b-9 complement complexes: A new index of blood-membrane interaction. Miner Electrolyte Metab 16: 73-76, 1990
89. Deppisch R, Schmitt V, Bommer J, Hansch G, Ritz E, Rauterberg E: Fluid phase generation of terminal complement complex as a novel index of biocompatibility. Kidney Int 37: 696-706, 1990
90. ++dependent exocytotic elimination of C5b-9 pores. Blood 68: 556-561, 1986
91. Strasser T, Schiffl H: Generation of leukotriene B4 by hemodialyzer membranes: A novel index of biocompatibility. Klin Wochenschr 69: 808, 1991
92. Hamilton K, Hattori R, Esmon C, Sims P: Complement proteins C5b-9 induce vesiculation of the endothelial plasma membrane and expose catalytic surface for assembly of the prothrombinase enzyme complex. J Biol Chem 265: 3809-3814, 1990
93. MacIsaac AI, Thomas JD, Topol EJ: Toward the quiescent coronary plaque. J Am Coll Cardiol 22: 1228-1241, 1993
94. Gris J-C, Branger B, Vecina F, Sabadini BA, Fourcade J, Schved J-F: Increased cardiovascular risk factors and features of endothelial activation and dysfunction in dialyzed uremic patients. Kidney Int 46: 807-813, 1994
95. Ross R: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: An update. N Engl J Med 314: 488-500, 1986
96. Vasson MP, Baguet JC, Arveiller MR, Bargnoux PJ, Giroud JP, Raichvarg D: Serum and urinary alpha-1 acid glycoprotein in chronic renal failure. Nephron 65: 299-303, 1993
97. Lindgren SC, Laurell CB, Sterner GN: Plasma protein homeostasis in chronic hemodialysis patients. Scand J Urol Nephrol 26: 279-282, 1992
98. Docci D, Bilancioni R, Baldrati L, Capponcini C, Turci F, Feletti C: Elevated acute phase reactants in hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 34: 88-91, 1990
99. Bergstrom J, Heimburger O, Lindholm B, Qureshi AR: Elevated serum C-reactive protein is a strong predictor of increased mortality and low serum albumin in hemodialysis (HD) patients [Abstract]. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 573, 1995
100. Heinrich J, Schulte H, Schonfeld R. Kohler E, Assmann G: Association of variables of coagulation, fibrinolysis and acute-phase with atherosclerosis in coronary and peripheral arteries and those arteries supplying the brain. Thromb Haemostasis 73: 374-379, 1995
101. Liuzzo G, Biasucci LM, Gallimore JR, Grille R, Rebuzzi AG, Pepys MB, Maseri A: The prognostic value of C-reactivie protein and serum amyloid A protein in severe unstable angina. N Engl J Med 331: 417-424, 1994
102. Sato T, Takebayashi S, Kohchi K: Increased subendothelial infiltration of the coronary arteries with monocytes/macrophages in patients with unstable angina: Histological data on 14 autopsied patients. Atherosclerosis 68: 191-197, 1987
103. Munro JM, Cotran RS: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: Atherogenesis and inflammation. Lab Invest 58: 249-261, 1988
104. Stemme S, Holm J, Hansson GK: T lymphocytes in human atherosclerotic plaques are memory cells expressing CD45RO and the integrin VLA-1. Arterioscler Thromb 12:206-211, 1992
105. Zeller JM, Sullivan BL: C-reactive protein selectively enhances the intracellular generation of reactive oxygen products by IgG-stimulated monocytes and neutrophils. J Leukocyte Biol 52: 449-455, 1992
106. Amann K, Ritz E: Cardiac structure and function in renal disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 5: 102-106, 1996
107. Sobue T, Yokota M, Iwase M, Ishihara H: Influence of left ventricular hypertrophy on left ventricular function during dynamic exercise in the presence or absence of coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 25: 91-98, 1995
108. Amann K, Neususs R, Ritz E, Irzyniec T, Wiest G, Mall G: Changes in vascular architecture independent of blood pressure in experimental uremia. Am J Hypertens 4: 409-417, 1995
109. Kalra J, Prasad K: Oxygen free radicals and cardiac depression. Clin Biochem 27: 163-168, 1994
110. 10. Grune T, Siems WG, Schonheit K, Blasig IE: Release of 4-hydroxynoneanl, an aldehydic mediator of inflammation, during postischaemic reperfusion of the myocardium. Int J Tissue React 15: 145-150, 1993
111. Morrow J, Awad J, Boss H, Blair I, Roberts LJ: A series of prostaglandin F2-like compounds are produced in vivo in humans by a non-cyclooxygenase, free radical catalyzed mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87: 9383-9387, 1990
112. Roberts LJ, Morrow JD: Isoprostanes: Novel markers of endogenous lipid peroxidation and potential mediators of oxidant injury. Ann NY Acad Sci 744: 237-242, 1994
113. Morrow J, Awad J, Boss H, Blair I, Roberts LJ: Non cyclooxygenase-derived prostanoids (F2-isoprostanes) are formed in situ on phospholipids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 10721-10725, 1992
114. Bucala R, Makita Z, Koschinsky T, Cerami A, Vlassara H: Lipid advanced glycosylation: Pathway for lipid oxidation in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 6434-6438, 1993
115. Vlassara H: Serum advanced glycosylation end products: A new class of uremic toxins. Blood Purif 12: 54-59, 1994
116. Schmidt AM, Hori O, Brett J, Van SD, Wautier J-L, Stern D: Cellular receptors for advanced glycation end products. Arterioscler Thromb 14: 1521-1528, 1994
117. Mullarkey C, Edelstein D, Brownlee M: Free radical generation by early glycation products: A mechanism for accelerated atherogenesis in diabetes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 173: 932-939, 1990
118. Hogan M, Cerami A, Bucala R: Advanced glycosylation end products block the antiproliferative effect of nitric oxide: Role in the vascular and renal complications of diabetes mellitus. J Clin Invest 90: 1110-1115, 1992
119. Palinski W, Koschinsky T, Butler SW, Miller E, Vlassara H, Cerami A, Witzum JL: Immunological evidence for the presence of advanced glycosylation end products in atherosclerotic lesions of euglycemic rabbits. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15: 571-582, 1995
120. McCully KS, Wilson RB: Homocysteine theory of arteriosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 22: 215-227, 1975
121. Fermo I, D'Angelo SV, Paroni R, Mazzola G, Calori G, D'Angelo A: Prevalence of moderate hyperhomocysteinemia in patients with early-onset venous and arterial occlusive disease. Ann Intern Med 123: 747-753, 1995
122. Glueck CJ, Shaw P, Lang JE, Tracy T, Sieve-Smith L, Wang Y: Evidence that homocysteine is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemic patients. Am J Cardiol 75: 132-136, 1995
123. Stampfer MJ, Malinow MR, Willett WC, Newcomer LM, Upson B, Ullmann D, Tishler PV, Hennekens CH: A prospective study of plasma homocysteine and risk of myocardial infarction in US physicians. JAMA 268: 877-881, 1992
124. Boushey CJ, Beresford SA, Omenn GS, Motulsky AG: A quantitative assessment of plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease: Probable benefits of increasing folic acid intakes. JAMA 274: 1049-1057, 1995
125. Selhub J, Jacques PF, Bostom AG, D'Agostino RB, Wilson PW, Belanger AJ O'Leary DH, Wolf PA, Schaefer EJ, Rosenberg IH: Association between plasma homocysteine concentrations and extracranial carotid-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med 332: 286-291, 1995
126. Chauveau P, Chadefaux B, Coude M, Aupetit J, Hannedouche T, Kamoun P, Jungers P: Hyperhomocystinemia, a risk factor for atherosclerosis in chronic uremic patients. Kidney Int 43[Suppl 41]: S72-S77, 1993
127. Kang SS, Wong PWK, Bidani A, Milanez S: Plasma protein-bound homocysteine in patients requiring chronic hemodialysis. Clin Sci 65: 335-336, 1983
128. Janssen MJFM, van Guldener C, van den Berg M, Stehouwer CDA, Donker AJM: Folic acid treatment of hyperhomocysteinemia in dialysis patients. Miner Electrolyte Metab 22: 110-114, 1996
129. Bachmann J, Tepel M, Raidt H, Riezler R, Graefe U, Langer K, Zidek W: Hyperhomocystinemia and the risk for vascular disease in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 6: 121-125, 1995
130. Hultberg B, Andersson A, Arnadottir M: Reduced, free and total fractions of homocysteine and other thiol compounds in plasma from patients with renal failure. Nephron 70: 62-67, 1995
131. Harpel PC, Chang VT, Borth W: Homocysteine and other sulfhydryl compounds enhance the binding of lipoprotein (a) to fibrin: A potential biochemical link between thrombosis, atherogenesis, and sulfhydryl compound metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89: 10193-10197, 1992
132. Blom HJ, Kleinveld HA, Boers GH, Demacker PN, Hak-Lemmers HL. TePoele-Pothoff MT, Trijbels JM: Lipid peroxidation and susceptibility of low-density lipoprotein to in vitro oxidation in hyperhomocystinemia. Eur J Clin Invest 25: 149-154, 1995
133. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Martin CJ, Murray DC, Barre PE: Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney Int 47: 186-192, 1995
134. Levin A, Singer J, Thompson CR, Ross H, Lewis M: Prevalent left ventricular hypertrophy in the predialysis population: Identifying opportunities for intervention. Am J Kidney Dis 27: 347-354, 1996
135. Parfrey PS, Foley RN, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Murray D, Barre PE: Outcome and risk factors of ischemic heart disease in chronic uremia. Kidney Int 49: 1428-1434, 1996
136. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, Kent GM, Murray DC, Barre PE: The prognostic importance of left ventricular geometry in uremic cardiomyopathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 5: 2024-2031, 1995