Determinants of primate social organization: Comparative evidence and new insights from malagasy lemurs

Biological Reviews

Volumn 72, Issue 1, 1997, Pages 111-151

  Kappeler, Peter M ^a  

^a GERMAN PRIMATE CENTER   (Germany)

Author keywords

Behavioural ecology; Lemuriformes; Primates; Social organization

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR; GROUP DYNAMICS; LIFESTYLE; MADAGASCAR; NONHUMAN; PRIMATE; PROSIMIAN; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL EVOLUTION; SOCIAL STRUCTURE;

ANIMALS; BEHAVIOR, ANIMAL; FEMALE; MALE; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; STREPSIRHINI;

ANTHROPOIDEA; LEMUR; LEMURIDAE; LEMURIFORMES; PRIMATES; STREPSIRHINI;

EID: 0031050481     PISSN: 14647931     EISSN: 1469185X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.1997.tb00012.x     Document Type: Article

References (249)

1. Alberts, S. C. & Altmann, J. (1995). Balancing costs and opportunities: Dispersal in male baboons. American Naturalist. 145, 279-306.
2. Albignac, R. (1981a). Lemurine social and territorial organisation in a north-western Malagasy forest (restricted area of Ampijoroa). In Primate Behavior and Sociobiology (ed. A. B. Chiarelli and R. S. Corruccini), pp. 25-29. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
3. Albignac, R. (1981b). Variabilité dans l’organisation térritoriale et l’éclogie de Avahi laniger (Lémurien nocturne de Madagascar). Comptes Rendus de l’Academie de Sciences Paris 929, 331-334.
4. Albignac, R., Fontenille, D., Maleyran, D. & Duvernoy, F. (1988). Evolution de l’organisation sociale et térritoriale de Propithecus verreauxi coquereli pendant 6 ans, dans les forêts sèches du nord-ouest de Madagascar (Ankarafantsika). In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèmes Foréstiers à Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovato, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 90-94. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
5. Albignac, R., Justin, P. & Meier, B. (1991). Study of the first behaviour of Allocebus trichotis Günther 1875 (hairy-eared dwarf lemur), prosimian lemur rediscovered in 1989 in the Northeast of Madagascar. In Primatology Today (ed. A. Ehara, T. Kimura, O. Takenaka and M. Iwamoto), pp. 85-88. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
6. Alexander, R. D. (1974). The evolution of social behavior. Annual Reviews in Ecology and Systematics. 5, 325-383.
7. Alexander, R. D., Hoogland, J. L., Howard, R. D., Noonan, K. M. & Sherman, P. W. (1979). Sexual dimorphism and breeding systems in pinnipeds, ungulates, primates, and humans. In Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior (ed. N. A. Chagnon and W. Irons), pp. 402-435. Duxbury, North Scituate, MA.
8. Alterman, L., Doyle, G. A. & Izard, M. K. (1995). Creatures of the Dark: The Nocturnal Prosimians. New York, Plenum Press.
9. Altmann, J. (1990). Primate males go where the females are. Animal Behaviour. 39, 193-195.
10. Andrews, J. (1990). A preliminary survey of black lemurs, Lemur macaco, in North West Madagascar. Unpublished report, WWF Madagascar.
11. Andrews, J., Antilahimena, P. & Birkinshaw, C. (1995). Use of a day resting box by a wild sportive lemur, Lepilemur dorsalis, on Nosy Be, Madagascar. Poster presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, U.K.
12. Andrews, J. & Birkinshaw, C. (1995). A comparison between the daytime and night-time feeding ecology of the black lemur, Eulemur macaco, in Lokobe forest, Madagascar. Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, U.K.
13. Andrianarivo, A. J. (1981). Etude comparée de l’organisation sociale chez Microcebus coquereli. D.Phil Thesis, Université de Madagascar, Antananarivo.
14. Andriatsarafara, R. (1988). Note sur le rythmes d’activité et sur le régime alimentaire de Lemur mongoz Linnaeus, 1766 à Ampijoroa. In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèmes Foréstiers à Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovoa, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 103-106. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
15. Arbélot-Tracqui, V. (1983). Etude étho-écologique de deux primates prosimiens: Lemur coronatus et Lemur fulvus sanfordi. D.Phil Thesis, Université de Rennes.
16. Ayres, J. M. (1989). Comparative feeding ecology of the Uakari and bearded saki, Cacajao and Chiropotes. Journal of Human Evolution 18, 697-716.
17. Barre, V., Lebec, A., Petter, J.-J. & Albignac, R. (1988). Etude du Microcèbe par radiotracking dans la forêt de l’Ankarafantsika. In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèmes Foréstiers à Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovato, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 61-71. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
18. Barton, R. A. (1996). Neocortex size and behavioural ecology in primates. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Series B,263, 173-177.
19. Bayart, F. & Anthouard, M. (1992). Responses to a live snake by Lemur macaco macaco and Lemur fulvus mayottensis in captivity. Folia Primatologica. 58, 41-46.
20. Beard, K. C., Dagosto, M., Gebo, D. L. & Godinot, M. (1988). Interrelationships among primate higher taxa. Nature. 331, 712-714.
21. Bearder, S. K. (1987). Lorises, bushbabies, and tarsiers: Diverse societies in solitary foragers. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 11-24. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
22. Bertram, B. C. R. (1978). Living in groups: Predators and prey. In Behavioural Ecology (ed. J. R. Krebs and N. B. Davies), pp. 64-96. Blackwell, Oxford.
23. Boinski, S. (1987). Mating patterns in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi): Implications for seasonal sexual dimorphism. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 21, 13-21.
24. Brockman, D. (1994). Reproduction and mating system of Verreaux’s sifaka, Propithecus verreauxi, at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar. PhD thesis, Yale University.
25. Budnitz, N. & Dainis, K. (1975). Lemur catta: Ecology and behavior. In Lemur Biology (ed. I. Tattersall and R. W. Sussman), pp. 219-235. Plenum Press, New York.
26. Byrne, R. W. & Whiten, A. (1988). Machiavellian Intelligence. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
27. Chapman, C. A. (1990). Ecological constraints on group size in three species of neotropical primates. Folia Primatologica. 55, 1-9.
28. Chapman, C. A., Wrangham, R. & Chapman, L. (1995). Ecological constraints on group size: An analysis of spider monkey and chimpanzee subgroups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 36, 59-70.
29. Charles-Dominique, P. (1977). Ecology and Behaviour of Nocturnal Primates. Columbia University Press, New York.
30. Charles-Dominique, P. (1978). Solitary and gregarious prosimians: Evolution of social structure in primates. In Recent Advances in Primatology, vol. 3 (ed. D. J. Chivers and K. A. Joysey), pp. 139-149. Academic Press, London.
31. Charles-Dominique, P. & Hladik, M. (1971). Le lépilemur du sud de Madagascar: écologie, alimentation, et vie social. Terre et Vie. 25, 3-66.
32. Charles-Dominique, P. & Petter, J. J. (1980). Ecology and social life of Phaner furcifer. In Nocturnal Malagasy Primates (ed. P. Charles-Dominique, H. M. Cooper, A. Hladik, C. M. Hladik, E. Pages, G. F. Pariente, A. Petter-Rousseaux, J.-J. Petter and A. Schilling), pp. 75-96. Academic Press, New York.
33. Cheney, D. L. (1987). Interactions and relationships between groups. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 267-281. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
34. Cheney, D. L. & Wrangham, R. W. (1987). Predation. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 227-239. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
35. Clark, A. B. (1985). Sociality in a nocturnal ‘solitary’ prosimian: Galago crassicaudatus. International Journal of Primatology 6, 581-600.
36. Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1985). Size, sexual dimorphism, and polygyny in primates. In Size and Scaling in Primate Biology (ed. W. L. Jungers), pp. 51-60. Plenum Press, New York.
37. Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989). Mammalian mating systems. Proceedings of the Royal Society London, Series B. 236, 339-372.
38. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. (1977). Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of Zoology, London. 183, 1-39.
39. Colquhoun, I. C. (1993). The socioecology of Eulemur macaco macaco: A preliminary report. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 11-23. Plenum Press, New York.
40. Colquhoun, I. C. (1995). The dark night and the moon: observations on the relationship between black lemur cathemeral behaviour and the lunar cycle. Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, UK.
41. Conley, J. M. (1975). Notes on the activity pattern of Lemur fulvus rufus. Journal of Mammalogy 56, 712-715.
42. Corbin, G. & Schmid, J. (1995). Insect secretions determine habitat use patterns by a female lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus). American Journal of Primatology 37, 317-324.
43. Cords, M. (1987). Forest guenons and patas monkeys: Male-male competition in one-male groups. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 98-111. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
44. Cords, M. (1988). Mating systems of forest guenons: A preliminary review. In A Primate Radiation, Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons (ed. A. Gauthier-Hion, F. Bourliere, J.-P. Gauthier and J. Kingdon), pp. 323-339. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
45. Crockett C. M. & Eisenberg, J. F. (1987). Howlers: variation in group size and demography. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 54-68. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
46. Crook, J. H. (1972). Sexual selection, dimorphism, and social organization in the primates. In Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man (ed. B. G. Campbell), pp. 180-230. Aldine, Chicago.
47. Crook, J. H. & Gartlan, J. C. (1966). Evolution of primate societies. Nature. 210, 1200-1203.
48. Dague, C. (1986). Contribution a l’étude du Lemur rubriventer dans son milieu naturel. Mammalia. 50, 561-563.
49. Dague, C. & Petter, J.-J. (1988). Observations sur le Lemur rubriventer dans son milieu naturel. In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèmes Foréstiers à Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovao, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 78-89. IUCN, Gland & Cambridge.
50. Davies, G. & Oates, J. (1994). Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
51. Digby, L. (1995). Infant care, infanticide, and female reproductive strategies in polygynous groups of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 37, 51-62.
52. Dixson, A. F. (1987). Observations on the evolution of the genitalia and copulatory behaviour in male primates. Journal of Zoology, London. 213, 423-443.
53. Duckworth, J. W., Evans, M. I., Hawkins, A. F. A., Safford, R. J. & Wilkinson, R. J. (1995). The lemurs of Marojejy strict nature reserve. Madagascar: A status overview with notes on ecology and threats. International Journal of Primatology. 16, 545-559.
54. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1983). Structure of gelada baboon reproductive units. II. The male’s relationship with his females. Animal Behaviour. 31, 565-575.
55. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1984). Reproductive Decisions - An Economic Analysis of Gelada Baboon Social Strategies. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
56. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1988). Primate Social Systems. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
57. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1992). Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 20, 469-493.
58. Dunbar, R. I. M. (1995). Neocortex size and group size in primates: A test of the hypothesis. Journal of Human Evolution. 28, 287-296.
59. Eisenberg, J. F., Muckenhirn, N. A. & Rudran, R. (1972). The relation between ecology and social structure in primates. Science. 176, 863-874.
60. Emlen, S. T. & Oring, L. W. (1977). Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems. Science. 197, 215-223.
61. Feistner, A. T. C. & Sterling, E. J. (1995). Body mass and sexual dimorphism in the aye-aye, Daubentonia madagascariensis. Dodo. 31, 73-76.
62. Fietz, J. (1995). Distribution pattern and mating system in Microcebus murinus (J. F. Miller 1777). Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, UK.
63. Freed, B. Z. (1995). The ecology of crowned lemurs and Sanford’s lemurs in Mt. d’Ambre, Madagascar. Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, UK.
64. Ganzhorn, J. U. (1988). Food partitioning among Malagasy primates. Oecologia. 75, 436-450.
65. Ganzhorn, J. U. (1993). Flexibility and constraints of Lepilemur ecology. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 153-165. Plenum Press, New York.
66. Ganzhorn, J. U., Abraham, J. P. & Razanahoera-Rakotomalala, M. (1985). Some aspects of the natural history and food selection of Avahi laniger. Primates. 26, 452-463.
67. Gauthier-Hion, A., Bourliere, F., Gauthier, J.-P. & Kingdon, J. (1988). A Primate Radiation. Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
68. Ginsberg, J. R. & Huck, U. W. (1989). Sperm competition in mammals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 4, 74-79.
69. Glander, K. E. & Powzyk, J. A. (1995). Morphometrics of wild Indri indri and Propithecus diadema diadema. Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, UK.
70. Glander, K. E., Wright, P. C., Daniels, P. S. & Merenlender, A. M. (1992). Morphometrics and testicle size of six rainforest lemur species from southeastern Madagascar. Journal of Human Evolution. 22, 1-17.
71. Godfrey, L. & Vuillaume-Randriamanantena, M. (1986). Hapalemur simus: Endangered lemur once widespread. Primate Conservation. 7, 92-96.
72. Goldizen, A. W. (1987). Tamarins and marmosets: Communal care of offspring. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 34-43. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
73. Goldizen, A. W. & Terborgh, J. (1989). Demography and dispersal patterns of a tamarin population: Possible causes of delayed breeding. American Naturalist. 134, 208-224.
74. Goodman, S. M. (1994a). Description of a new species of subfossil eagle from Madagascar: Stephanoaetus (Aves: Falconiformes) from the deposits of Ampasambazimba. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 1077, 421-428.
75. Goodman, S. M. (1994b). The enigma of anti-predator behavior in lemurs: Evidence of a large extinct eagle on Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology. 15, 129-134.
76. Goodman, S. M., O’Connor, S. & Langrand, O. (1993). A review of predation on lemurs: Implications for the evolution of social behavior in small, nocturnal primates. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 51-66. Plenum Press, New York.
77. Harcourt, A. H., Harvey, P. H., Larson, S. G. & Short, R. V. (1981). Testis weight, body weight, and breeding system in primates. Nature. 293, 55-57.
78. Harcourt, C. S. (1987). Brief trap/retrap study of the brown mouse lemur (Microcebus rufus). Folia Primatologica 49, 209-211.
79. Harcourt, C. S. (1991). Diet and behaviour of a nocturnal lemur. Avahi laniger, in the wild. Journal of Zoology, London. 223, 667-674.
80. Harcourt, C. S. & Thornback, J. (1990). Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros. The IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
81. Harrington, J. E. (1975). Field observations of social behavior of Lemur fulvus fulvus. In Lemur Biology (ed. I. Tattersall and R. W. Sussman), pp. 259-279. Plenum Press, New York.
82. Harrington J. E. (1978). Diurnal behavior of Lemur mongoz at Ampijoroa. Folia Primatologica. 29, 291-302.
83. Hasegawa, T. & Haraiwa-Hasegawa, M. (1990). Sperm competition and mating behavior. In The Chimpanzees of the Mahale Mountains (ed. T. Nishida), pp. 15-132. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
84. Hausfater, G. & Hrdy, S. B. (1984). Infanticide: Comparative and Evolutionary Perspectives. Aldine, Hawthorn.
85. Hladik, A. (1980). The dry forest of the west coast of Madagascar: Climate, phenology, and food available for prosimians. In Nocturnal Malagasy Primates: Ecology, Physiology, and Behavior (ed. P. Charles-Dominique, H. M. Cooper, A. Hladik, C. M. Hladik, E. Pages, G. F. Pariente, A. Petter-Rousseaux, J.-J. Petter and A. Schilling), pp. 3-40. Academic Press, New York.
86. Hladik, C. M. & Charles-Dominique, P. (1974). The behavior and ecology of the sportive lemur (Lepilemur mustelinus) in relation to its dietary peculiarities. In Prosimian Biology (ed. R. D. Martin, G. A. Doyle and A. C. Walker), pp. 23-37. Duckworth, London.
87. Hladik, C. M., Charles-Dominique, P. & Petter, J.-J. (1980). Feeding strategies of five nocturnal prosimians in the dry forest of the west coast of Madagascar. In Nocturnal Malagasy Primates: Ecology, Physiology and Behavior (ed. P. Charles-Dominique, H. M. Cooper, A. Hladik, C. M. Hladik, E. Pages, G. F. Pariente, A. Petter-Rousseaux, J.-J. Petter and A. Schilling), pp. 41-73. Academic Press, New York.
88. Hood, L. C. (1994). Infanticide among ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology. 33, 65-69.
89. Hood, L. C. & Jolly, A. (1995). Troop fission in female Lemur catta at Berenty Reserve, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology. 16, 997-1015.
90. Hrdy, S. B., Janson, C. H. & Van Schaik, C. P. (1995). Infanticide: let’s not throw out the baby with the bathwater. Evolutionary Anthropology. 3, 151-154.
91. Janson, C. H. (1984). Female choice and mating system of the brown capuchin monkey Cebus apella (Primates: Cebidae). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 65, 177-200.
92. Janson, C. H. (1985). Aggressive competition and individual food consumption in wild brown capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 18, 125-138.
93. Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur Behavior. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
94. Jolly, A. (1967). Breeding synchrony in wild Lemur catta. In Social Communication among Primates (ed. S. A. Altman), pp. 3-14. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
95. Jolly, A. (1972). Troop continuity and troop spacing in Propithecus verreauxi and Lemur catta at Berenty (Madagascar). Folia Primatologica. 17, 335-362.
96. Jolly, A. (1996). Pair-bonding, female aggression, and the evolution of lemur societies. Folia Primatologica. (In the Press.).
97. Jolly, A., Gustafson, H., Oliver, W. L. R. & O’Connor, S. M. (1982). Propithecus verreauxi population and ranging at Berenty, Madagascar, 1975 and 1980. Folia Primatologica. 39, 124-144.
98. Jolly, A., Rasamimanana, H. R., Kinnaird, M. F., O’Brien, T. G., Crowley, H. M., Harcourt, C. S., Gardner, S. & Davidson, J. M. (1993). Territoriality in Lemur catta groups during the birth season at Berenty, Madagascar. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 85-109. Plenum Press, New York.
99. Jones, K. C. (1983). Inter-troop transfer of Lemur catta males at Berenty, Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 40, 145-160.
100. Kappeler, P. M. (1990). The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in prosimian primates. American Journal of Primatology. 21, 201-214.
101. Kappeler, P. M. (1991). Patterns of sexual dimorphism in body weight among prosimian primates. Folia Primatologica. 57, 132-146.
102. Kappeler, P. M. (1993a). Female dominance in primates and other mammals. In Perspectives in Ethology. Volume 10. Behaviour and Evolution (ed. P. P. G. Bateson, P. H. Klopfer and N. S. Thompson), pp. 143-158. Plenum Press, New York.
103. Kappeler, P. M. (1993b). Sexual selection and lemur social systems. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 223-240. Plenum Press, New York.
104. Kappeler, P. M. (1993c). Variation in social structure: The effects of sex and kinship on social interactions in three lemur species. Ethology. 93, 125-145.
105. Kappeler, P. M. (1996a). Intrasexual selection and testis size in strepsirhine primates. Behavioural Ecology. (In the Press.).
106. Kappeler, P. M. (1996b). Intrasexual selection and phylogenetic constraints in the evolution of sexual canine dimorphism in strepsirhine primates. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 9, 43-65.
107. Kappeler, P. M. (1996c). Causes and consequences of life history variation among strepsirhine primates. American Naturalist. (In the Press.).
108. Kappeler, P. M. & Ganzhorn, J. U. (1993). Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. Plenum Press, New York.
109. Kappeler, P. M. & Ganzhorn, J. U. (1994). The evolution of primate communities and societies in Madagascar. Evolutionary Anthropology. 2, 159-171.
110. Kappeler, P. M. & Heymann, E. W. (1996). Nonconvergence in the evolution of primate life history and socioecology. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. (In the Press).
111. Kay, R. F., Plavcan, J. M., Glander, K. E. & Wright, P. C. (1988). Sexual selection and canine dimorphism in New World monkeys. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 77, 385-397.
112. Kinzey, W. G. & Cunningham, E. P. (1994). Variability in platyrrhine social organization. American Journal of Primatology. 34, 185-198.
113. Koenders, L., Rumpler, Y., Ratsirarson, J. & Peyrieras, A. (1985). Lemur macaco flavifrons (Gray 1867): A rediscovered subspecies of primates. Folia Primatologica. 44, 210-215.
114. Koyama, N. (1988). Mating behavior of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at Berenty, Madagascar. Primates. 29, 163-175.
115. Koyama, N. (1991). Troop division and inter-troop relationships of ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) at Berenty, Madagascar. In Proceedings of the XIII Congress of the International Primatological Society (ed. A. Ehara, T. Kimura, O. Takenaka and M. Iwamoto), pp. 173-176. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
116. Kummer, H. (1968). Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
117. Leighton, D. R. (1987). Gibbons: Territoriality and monogamy. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 135-145. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
118. Macedonia, J. M. (1993). Adaptation and phylogenetic constraints in the antipredator behavior of ringtailed and ruffed lemurs. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 67-84. Plenum Press, New York.
119. Martin, R. D. (1972a). Adaptive radiation and behaviour of the Malagasy lemurs. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London. 264, 320-352.
120. Martin, R. D. (1972b). A preliminary field-study of the lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus J. F. Miller 1777). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie Supplement. 9, 43-89.
121. Martin, R. D. (1973). A review of the behaviour and ecology of the lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus J. F. Miller 1777). In Comparative Ecology and Behaviour of Primates (ed. R. P. Michael and J. H. Crook), pp. 1-68. Academic Press, London.
122. Martin, R. D. (1981). Field studies of primate behaviour. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London. 46, 287-336.
123. Martin, R. D. (1990). Primate Origins and Evolution. Chapman and Hall, London.
124. Masters, J. (1991). Loud calls of Galago crassicaudatus and G. garnettii and their relation to habitat structure. Primates. 32, 153-167.
125. Meier, B. & Albignac, R. (1991). Rediscovery of Allocebus trichotis Günther 1875 (Primates) in Northeast Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 56, 57-63.
126. Meier, B., Albignac, R., Peyrieras, A., Rumpler, Y. & Wright, P. (1987). A new species of Hapalemur (Primates) from South East Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 48, 211-215.
127. Melnick, D. J. & Pearl, M. C. (1987). Cercopithecines in multimale groups: genetic diversity and population structure. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 121-134. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
128. Mertl-Millhollen, A. S. (1979). Olfactory demarcation of territorial boundaries by a primate - Propithecus verreauxi. Folia Primatologica 32, 35-42.
129. Meyers, D. M. & Ratsirarson, J. (1989). Distribution and conservation of two endangered sifakas in Northern Madagascar. Primate Conservation. 10, 81-86.
130. Meyers, D. M. & Wright, P. C. (1993). Resource tracking: food availability and Propithecus seasonal reproduction. In Lemur Social Systems and their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 179-192. Plenum Press, New York.
131. Mitchell, C. L., Boinski, S. & Van Schaik, C. P. (1991). Competitive regimes and female bonding in two species of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi and S. sciureus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 28, 55-60.
132. Mittermeier, R. A., Tattersall, I., Konstant, W. R., Meyers, D. M. & Mast, R. B. (1994). Lemurs of Madagascar. Conservation International, Washington, DC.
133. Møller, A. P. (1988). Ejaculate quality, testes size and sperm competition in primates. Journal of Human Evolution. 17, 479-488.
134. Moore, J. (1984). Female transfer in primates. International Journal of Primatology. 5, 537-589.
135. Morland, H. S. (1990). Parental behavior and infant development in ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) in a northeast Madagascar rainforest. American Journal of Primatology. 20, 253-265.
136. Morland, H. S. (1991a). Preliminary report on the social organization of ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a northeast Madagascar rainforest. Folia Primatologica. 56, 157-161.
137. Morland, H. S. (1991b). Social organization and ecology of black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a lowland rainforest, Nosy Mangabe, Madagascar. D.Phil. Thesis, Yale University.
138. Morland, H. S. (1993). Reproductive activity of ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a Madagascar rain forest. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 91, 71-82.
139. Nievergelt, C., Mutschler, T. & Feistner, A. T. C. (1996). Group encounters and territoriality in wild Alaotran gentle lemurs (Hapalemur griseus alaotrensis). (Submitted manuscript.).
140. Nishida, T. & Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M. (1987). Chimpanzees and bonobos: Cooperative relationships among males. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 165-177. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
141. O’Brien, T. (1991). Female-male social interactions in wedge-capped capuchin monkeys: benefits and costs of group living. Animal Behaviour. 41, 555-568.
142. Overdorff, D. (1988). Preliminary report on the activity cycle and diet of the red-bellied lemur (Lemur rubriventer) in Madagascar. American Journal of Primatology. 16, 143-154.
143. Overdorff, D. J. (1993a). Ecological and reproductive correlates to range use in red-bellied lemurs (Eulemur rubriventer) and rufous lemurs (Eulemur fulvus rufus). In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 167-178. Plenum Press, New York.
144. Overdorff, D. J. (1993b). Similarities, differences, and seasonal patterns in the diets of Eulemur rubriventer and Eulemur fulvus rufus in the Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology. 14, 721-753.
145. Overdorff, D. J. & Rasmussen, M. A. (1995). Determinants of nighttime activity in ‘diurnal’ lemurid primates. In Creatures of the Dark (ed. L. Alterman, G. Doyle and K. Izard), pp. 61-74. Plenum Press, New York.
146. Pages, E. (1978). Home range, behaviour and tactile communication in a nocturnal Malagasy lemur Microcebus coquereli. In Recent Advances in Primatology, vol. 3 (ed. D. A. Chivers and K. A. Joysey), pp. 171-177. Academic Press, London.
147. Pages, E. (1980). Ethoecology of Microcebus coquereli during the dry season. In Nocturnal Malagasy Primates: Behavior, Ecology, and Physiology (ed. P. Charles-Dominique, H. M. Cooper, A. Hladik, C. M. Hladik, E. Pages, G. F. Pariente, A. Petter-Rousseaux, J.-J. Petter and A. Schilling), pp. 97-116. Academic Press, New York.
148. Pages-Feuillade, E. (1988). Modalités de l’occupation de l’éspace et rélations interindividuelles chez un prosimien nocturne malgache (Microcebus murinus). Folia Primatologica 50, 204-220.
149. Palombit, R. A. (1994). Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous ape. Animal Behaviour. 47, 721-723.
150. Pereira, M. E. (1991). Asynchrony within estrous synchrony among ringtailed lemurs (Primates: Lemuridae). Physiology and Behavior. 49, 47-52.
151. Pereira, M. E. (1993). Agonistic interaction, dominance relation, and ontogenetic trajectories in ringtailed lemurs. In Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior (ed. M. E. Pereira and L. A. Fairbanks), pp. 285-305. Oxford University Press, New York.
152. Pereira, M. E. (1995). Development and social dominance among group-living primates. American Journal of Primatology. 37, 143-175.
153. Pereira, M. E., Klepper, A. & Simons, E. L. (1987). Tactics of care for young infants by forest-living ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata): ground nests, parking, and biparental guarding. American Journal of Primatology. 13, 129-144.
154. Pereira, M. E. & Weiss, M. L. (1991). Female mate choice, male migration, and the threat of infanticide in ringtailed lemurs. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 28, 141-152.
155. Petter, J. J. (1965). The lemurs of Madagascar. In Primate Behavior. Field Studies of Monkeys and Apes (ed. I. DeVore), pp. 292-319. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
156. Petter, J. J. (1977). The aye-aye. In Primate Conservation (ed. P. Rainier III and G. H. Bourne), pp. 2-35. Academic Press, New York.
157. Petter, J.-J. (1988). Contribution à l’étude du Cheirogaleus medius dans le forêt de Morandova. In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèmes Foréstiers à Madagascar: Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovao, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 57-60. IUCN, Gland and Cambridge.
158. Petter, J. J. & Peyrieras, A. (1970a). New contribution to the study of a Malagasy lemur, the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis). Mammalia 34, 167-193.
159. Petter, J. J. & Peyrieras, A. (1970b). Observations éco-éthologiques sur les lémuriens malgaches du genre Hapalemur. Terre et Vie 24, 356-382.
160. Petter, J. J., Albignac, R. & Rumpler, Y. (1977). Faune de Madagascar 44: Mammiferes Lémuriens (Primates Prosimien). ORSTOM and CNRS, Paris.
161. Petter, J.-J., Schilling, A. & Pariente, G. (1971). Observations éco-éthologiques sur deux lémuriens malagaches nocturnes: Phaner furcifer et Microcebus coquereli. Terre et Vie 25, 287-327.
162. Petter, J. J., Schilling, A. & Pariente, G. (1975). Observations of the behavior and ecology of Phaner furcifer. In Lemur Biology (ed. I. Tattersall and R. W. Sussman), pp. 209-218. Plenum Press, New York.
163. Plavcan, M. & Van Schaik, C. P. (1992). Intrasexual competition and canine dimorphism in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 87, 461-477.
164. Pollock, J. I. (1975). Field observations on Indri indri: A preliminary report. In Lemur Biology (ed. I. Tattersall and R. W. Sussman), pp. 287-311. Plenum Press, New York.
165. Pollock, J. I. (1979). Spatial distribution and ranging behavior in lemurs. In The Study of Prosimian Behavior (ed. G. A. Doyle and R. D. Martin), pp. 359-409. Academic Press, New York.
166. Pollock, J. I. (1986a). A note on the ecology and behavior of Hapalemur griseus. Primate Conservation 7, 97-101.
167. Pollock, J. I. (1986b). The song of the Indris (Indri indri, Primates: Lemuroidea): natural history, form and function. International Journal of Primatology 7, 225-264.
168. Pope, T. R. (1990). The reproductive consequences of male cooperation in the red howler monkey: Paternity exclusion in multi-male and single-male troops using genetic markers. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 27, 439-446.
169. Rabinowitz, P., Covin, M. & Falvey, D. (1983). The separation of Madagascar and Africa. Science. 220, 67-69.
170. Rasoloarison, R. M., Rasolonandrasana, B. P. N., Ganzhorn, J. U. & Goodman, S. M. (1995). Predation on vertebrates in the Kirindy forest, Western Madagascar. Ecotropica. 1, 59-65.
171. Ratsirarson, J. & Rumpler, Y. (1988). Contribution a l’étude comparée de l’éco-éthologie de deux espèces de lémuriens, Lepilemur mustelinus (Geoffroy 1850), et Lepilemur septentrionalis (Rumpler et Albignac 1975). In L’Equilibre des Ecosystèms Forestiers à Madagascar, Actes d’un Séminaire International (ed. L. Rakotovao, V. Barre and J. Sayer), pp. 100-102. IUCN, Gland.
172. Richard, A. F. (1974a). Intra-specific variation in the social organization and ecology of Propithecus verreauxi. Folia Primatologica 22, 178-207.
173. Richard, A. F. (1974b). Patterns of mating in Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi. In Prosimian Biology (ed. R. D. Martin, G. A. Doyle and A. C. Walker), pp. 49-74. Duckworth, London.
174. Richard, A. F. (1978). Behavioral Variation: Case Study of a Malagasy Lemur. Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg.
175. Richard, A. F. (1985). Social boundaries in a Malagasy prosimian, the sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi). International Journal of Primatology 6, 553-568.
176. Richard, A. F. (1987). Malagasy prosimians: female dominance. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 25-33. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
177. Richard, A. F. (1992). Aggressive competition between males, female-controlled polygyny and sexual monomorphism in a Malagasy primate, Propithecus verreauxi. Journal of Human Evolution 22, 395-406.
178. Richard, A. F. & Dewar, R. E. (1991). Lemur ecology. Annual Reviews of Ecology and Systematics. 22, 145-175.
179. Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P. & Schwartz, M. (1991). Demography of Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: Sex ratio, survival, and fertility. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 84, 307-322.
180. Richard, A. F., Rakotomanga, P. & Schwartz, M. (1993). Dispersal by Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafaly, Madagascar: 1984-1991. American Journal of Primatology. 30, 1-20.
181. Ridley, M. (1986). The number of males in a primate troop. Animal Behaviour. 34, 1848-1858.
182. Rigamonti, M. M. (1993). Home range and diet in red ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra) on the Masoala peninsula, Madagascar. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 25-40. Plenum Press, New York.
183. Robinson, J. G. & Janson, C. H. (1987). Capuchins, squirrel monkeys, and atelines: Socioecological convergence with Old World primates. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 69-82. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
184. Robinson, J. G., Wright, P. C. & Kinzey, W. G. (1987). Monogamous cebids and their relatives: Intergroup calls and spacing. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 44-53. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
185. Rodman, P. S. & Mitani, J. C. (1987). Orangutans: Sexual dimorphism in a solitary species. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 146-154. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
186. Rowell, T. E. & Dixon, A. F. (1975). Changes in social organization during the breeding season of wild talapoin monkeys. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 43, 419-434.
187. Russell, R. J. (1977). The behavior, ecology, and environmental physiology of a nocturnal primate, Lepilemur mustelinus. D.Phil Thesis, Duke University.
188. Sauther, M. L. (1991). Reproductive behavior of free-ranging Lemur catta at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 84, 463-477.
189. Schilling, A. (1979). Olfactory communication in prosimians. In The Study of Prosimian Behavior (ed. G. A. Doyle and R. D. Martin), pp. 461-542. Academic Press, New York.
190. Schmid, J. & Kappeler, P. M. (1994). Sympatric mouse lemurs (Microcebus ssp.) in Western Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 63, 162-170.
191. Shedd, D. H. & Macedonia, J. M. (1991). Metachromism and its phylogenetic implications for the genus Eulemur (Prosimii: Lemuridae). Folia Primatologica. 57, 221-231.
192. Silk, J. B. (1987). Social behavior in evolutionary perspective. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 318-329. Chicago University Press, Chicago.
193. Simons, E. (1988). A new species of Propithecus (Primates) from northeast Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 50, 143-151.
194. Sommer, V. (1994). Infanticide among the langurs of Jodhpur: Testing the sexual selection hypothesis with a long-term record. In Infanticide and Parental Care (ed. S. Parmigiani and F. S. vom Saal), pp. 155-198. Harwood, Chur.
195. Stammbach, E. (1987). Desert, forest and montane baboons: Multi-level societies. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 112-120. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
196. Stanford, C. B. (1991). The capped langur in Bangladesh: behavioral ecology and reproductive tactics. Contributions to Primatology. 26, 1-179.
197. Stanger, K. F., Coffman, B. S. & Izard, M. K. (1995). Reproduction in Coquerel’s dwarf lemur (Mirza coquereli). American Journal of Primatology 36, 223-237.
198. Sterling, E. J. (1993). Patterns of range use and social organization in aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) on Nosy Mangabe. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 1-10. Plenum Press, New York.
199. Sterling, E. J. (1994). Evidence for nonseasonal reproduction in wild aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis). Folia Primatologica 62, 46-53.
200. Struhsaker, T. T. (1969). Correlates of ecology and social organization among African cercopithecines. Folia Primatologica. 11, 80-118.
201. Struhsaker, T. T. (1980). Comparison of the behavior and ecology of red colobus and redtail monkeys in the Kibale Forest, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology. 18, 33-51.
202. Struhsaker, T. T. & Leland, L. (1987). Colobines: Infanticide by adult males. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 83-97. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
203. Struhsaker, T. T. & Pope, T. R. (1991). Mating system and reproductive success: A comparison of two African forest monkeys (Colobus badius and Cercopithecus ascanius). Behaviour. 117, 182-205.
204. Sussman, R. W. (1974). Ecological distinctions of sympatric species of Lemur. In Prosimian Biology (ed. R. D. Martin, G. A. Doyle and A. C. Walker), pp. 75-108. Duckworth, London.
205. Sussman, R. W. (1991). Demography and social organization of free-ranging Lemur catta in the Beza Mahafaly Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 84, 43-58.
206. Sussman, R. W. (1992). Male life history and intergroup mobility among ringtailed lemurs (Lemur catta). International Journal of Primatology 13, 395-414.
207. Sussman, R. W. & Tattersall, I. (1976). Cycles of activity, group composition, and diet of Lemur mongoz in Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 26, 270-283.
208. Tattersall, I. (1976). Group structure and activity rhythm in Lemur mongoz (Primates, Lemuriformes) on Anjouan and Moheli Island, Comoro archipelago. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. 53, 369-380.
209. Tattersall, I. (1977). Ecology and behavior of Lemur fulvus mayottensis (Primates, Lemuriformes). Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. 54, 425-482.
210. Tattersall, I. (1978). Behavioral variation in Lemur mongoz. In Recent Advances in Primatology, vol. III (ed. D. A. Chivers and K. A. Joysey), pp. 127-132. Academic Press, London.
211. Tattersall, I. (1982). The Primates of Madagascar. Columbia University Press, New York.
212. Tattersall, I. (1993). Madagascar’s lemurs. Scientific American. January, 90-97.
213. Terborgh, J. (1983). Five New World Primates: A Study in Comparative Ecology. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
214. Terborgh, J. & Goldizen, A. W. (1985). On the mating system of the cooperatively breeding saddle-backed tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 16, 293-299.
215. Terborgh, J. & Janson, C. H. (1986). The socioecology of primate groups. Annual Reviews in Ecology and Systematics. 17, 111-135.
216. Tilson, R. L. & Tenaza, R. R. (1976). Monogamy and duetting in an Old World monkey. Nature. 263, 320-321.
217. Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man (ed. B. Campbell), pp. 136-179. Aldine, Chicago.
218. Van Schaik, C. P. (1983). Why are diurnal primates living in groups. Behaviour. 87, 120-144.
219. Van Schaik, C. P. (1989). The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates. In Comparative Socioecology (ed. V. Standen and R. A. Foley), pp. 195-218. Blackwell, Oxford.
220. Van Schaik, C. P. & Dunbar, R. I. M. (1990). The evolution of monogamy in large primates: A new hypothesis and some crucial tests. Behaviour. 115, 30-62.
221. Van Schaik, C. P. & Kappeler, P. M. (1993). Life history, activity period and lemur social systems. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 241-260. Plenum Press, New York.
222. Van Schaik, C. P. & Kappeler, P. M. (1996). The social systems of gregarious lemurs: lack of convergence with anthropoids due to evolutionary disequilibrium Ethology. (In the Press.).
223. Van Schaik, C. P. & Van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (1983). On the ultimate causes of primate social systems. Behaviour. 85, 91-117.
224. Van Schaik, C. P. & Van Noordwijk, M. A. (1986). The hidden costs of sociality: Intra-group variation in feeding strategies in sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Behaviour. 99, 296-315.
225. Van Schaik, C. P. & Van Noordwijk, M. A. (1989). The special role of male Cebus monkeys in predation avoidance and its effect on group composition. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 24, 265-276.
226. Van Schaik, C. P., Van Noordwijk, M. A., Warsono, B. & Sutriono, E. (1983). Party size and early detection of predators in Sumatran forest primates. Primates. 24, 211-221.
227. Vasey, N. (1995). Ranging behaviour, community size and community composition of red ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata rubra, at Andranobe, Masoala peninsula, Madagascar. Paper presented at the International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Prosimians, Chester, UK.
228. Vick, L. G. & Pereira, M. E. (1989). Episodic targeting aggression and the histories of Lemur social groups. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 25, 3-12.
229. Warren, R. D. (1994). Lazy leapers: A study of the locomotor ecology of two species of saltatory nocturnal lemur in sympatry at Ampijoroa, Madagascar. D.Phil thesis, University of Liverpool.
230. Watts, D. P. (1991). Harassment of immigrant female mountain gorillas by resident females. Ethology. 89, 135-153.
231. Watts, D. P. (1992). Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountain gorillas. I. Male-female relationships. American Journal of Primatology. 28, 159-182.
232. White, F. J. (1991). Social organization, feeding ecology, and reproductive strategy of ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata. In Proceedings of the XIII Congress of the International Primatological Society (ed. A. Ehara, T. Kimura, O. Takenaka and M. Iwamoto), pp. 81-84. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
233. White, F. J. & Burgman, M. A. (1990). Social organization of the pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus): Multivariate analysis of intra-community associations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 83, 193-201.
234. White, F. J., Balko, E. A. & Fox, E. A. (1993). Male transfer in captive ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata variegata. In Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis (ed. P. M. Kappeler and J. U. Ganzhorn), pp. 41-50. Plenum Press, New York.
235. Wilson, J. M., Stewart, P. D., Ramangason, G. S., Denning, A. M. & Hutchings, M. S. (1989). Ecology and conservation of the crowned lemur, Lemur coronatus, at Ankarana, N. Madagascar. Folia Primatologica. 52, 1-26.
236. Wrangham, R. W. (1980). An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. Behaviour. 75, 262-300.
237. Wrangham, R. W. (1987). Evolution of social structure. In Primate Societies (ed. B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham and T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 282-297. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
238. Wright, P. C. (1986). Diet, ranging behavior and activity pattern of the gentle lemur (Hapalemur griseus) in Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 66, 283.
239. Wright, P. C. (1988). Social behavior of Propithecus diadema edwardsi in Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 75, 289.
240. Wright, P. C. (1989a). Comparative ecology of three sympatric bamboo lemurs in Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 78, 327.
241. Wright, P. C. (1989b). The nocturnal primate niche in the New World. Journal of Human Evolution. 18, 635-658.
242. Wright, P. C. (1990). Patterns of paternal care in primates. International Journal of Primatology. 1, 89-102.
243. Wright, P. C. (1995). Demography and life history of free-ranging Propithecus diadema edwardsi in Ranomafana National Park, Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology. 16, 835-854.
244. Wright, P. C., Daniels, P. S., Meyers, D. M., Overdorff, D. J. & Rabesoa, J. (1986). A census and study of Hapalemur and Propithecus in southeastern Madagascar. Primate Conservation. 6, 84-88.
245. Wright, P. C. & Martin, L. B. (1995). Predation, pollination and torpor in two nocturnal prosimians: Cheirogaleus major and Microcebus rufus in the rain forest of Madagascar. In Creatures of the Dark (ed. L. Alterman, G. Doyle and K. Izard), pp. 45-60. Plenum Press, New York.
246. Yeager, C. P. (1990). Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) social organization: group structure. American Journal of Primatology. 20, 95-106.
247. Yeager, C. P. (1992). Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) social organization: nature and possible functions of intergroup patterns of association. American Journal of Primatology. 26, 133-137.
248. Yoder, A. D. (1994). Relative position of the Cheirogaleidae in strepsirhine phylogeny: A comparison of morphological and molecular methods and results. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 94, 25-46.
249. Zimmermann, E. (1995). Acoustic communication in nocturnal prosimians. In Creatures of the Dark (ed. L. Alterman, G. Doyle and K. Izard), pp. 311-330. Plenum Press, New York.