Nonconvergence in the evolution of primate life history and socio-ecology

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society

Volumn 59, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 297-326

  Kappeler, Peter M ^a   Heymann, Eckhard W ^a  

^a GERMAN PRIMATE CENTER   (Germany)

Author keywords

Behaviour; Biogeography; Convergence; Ecology; Evolution; Life history; Phylogeny; Primates

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030443405     PISSN: 00244066     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1996.tb01468.x     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Albignac R. 1981a. Variabilité dans l'organisation territoriale et l'écologie de Avahi laniger (Lémurien nocturne de Madagascar). Comptes Rendus de l'Academie des Sciences, Paris 929: 331-334.
2. Albignac R. 1981b. Lemurine social and territorial organisation in a north-western Malagasy forest (restricted area of Ampijoroa). In: Chiarelli AB, Corruccini RS, eds. Primate Behavior and Sociobiology. Berlin: Springer, 25-29.
3. Alcover JA, McMinn M. 1994. Predators of vertebrates on islands. BioScience 44: 12-18.
4. Andrews JR. 1990. A preliminary survey of black lemurs, Lemur macaco, in North West Madagascar. Unpublished report.
5. Aquino R, Encarnación F. 1986. Population structure of Aotus nancymai (Cebidae: Primates) in Peruvian Amazon lowland forest. American Journal of Primatology 11: 1-7.
6. Aquino R, Puertas P, Encarnación F. 1990. Supplemental notes on population parameters of northeastern Peruvian night monkeys, genus Aotus (Cebidae). American Journal of Primatology 21: 215-221.
7. Ayres JMC. 1981. Observacoes sobre a ecologia e o compartamiento dos cuxius (Chiropotes albinasus e Chiropotes satarias, Cebidae: Primates). Ms thesis, Fundacao Universidade do Amazonas.
8. Ayres JMC. 1985. On a new species of squirrel monkey, genus Saimiri, from Brazilian Amazonia (Primates, Cebidae). Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia, Sao Paulo 14: 147-164.
9. Ayres JMC. 1986. Uakaris and Amazonian flooded forest. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
10. Bearder SK. 1987. Lorises, bushbabies, and tarsiers: diverse societies in solitary foragers. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 11-24.
11. Bearder SK, Doyle GA. 1974. Ecology of bushbabies Galago senegalensis and Galago crassicaudatus, with some notes on their behaviour in the field. In: Martin RD, Doyle GA, Walker AC, eds. Prosimian Biology. London: Duckworth, 109-130.
12. Bennett EL, Davies AG. 1994. The ecology of Asian colobines In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 129-172.
13. Boinski S. 1989. The positional behavior and substrate use of squirrel monkeys: ecological implications. Journal of Human Evolution. 18: 659-677.
14. Bonvicino CR. 1989. Ecologia e comportamento de Alouatta belzebuhl (Primates: Cebidae) na Mata Atlantica. Revista Nordestina de Biologia 6: 149-179.
15. Bourliere F. 1985. Primate communities: their structure and role in tropical ecosystems. International Journal of Primatology 6: 1-26.
16. Brown S, Lugo AE. 1984. Biomass of tropical forests: a new estimate based on forest volumes. Science 223: 1290-1293.
17. Buchanan-Smith HM. 1990a. Polyspecific association of two tamarin species, Saguinus labiatus and Saguinus fuscicollis, in Bolivia. American Journal of Primatology 22: 205-214.
18. Buchanan-Smith HM. 1990b. Observations of Gray's bald-faced saki, Pithecia irrorata, in Bolivia. In: Waters SS, ed. Regional (UK) Studbook for the White-faced Saki, Pithecia pithecia, No.2.
19. Butynski TM. 1988. Guenon birth seasons and correlates with rainfall and food. In: Gauthier-Hion A, Bourliere F, Gauthier J-P, Kingdon J eds. A Primate Radiation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 284-322.
20. Calder WA. 1984. Size, Function, and Life History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
21. Carvalho CT de, Carvalho CF de. 1989. A organizacao dos sauis-pretos (Leontopithecus chrysopygus Mikan), na reserva em Teodoro Sampaio, Sao Paulo Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 6: 707-717.
22. Chapman CA. 1990. Association patterns of spider monkeys: the influence of ecology and sex on social organization. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 26: 409-414
23. Charles-Dominique P. 1977. Ecology and Behaviour of Nocturnal Primates. New York: Columbia University Press.
24. Charles-Dominique P, Petter JJ. 1980. Ecology and social life of Phaner furcifer. In: Charles-Dominique P, Cooper HM, Hladik CM, Pages E, Pariente GF, Petter-Rousseaux A, Petter J-J, Schilling A, eds. Nocturnal Malagasy Primates. New York: Academic Press, 75-96.
25. Cheney DL, Wrangham RW. 1987. Predation. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 227-239.
26. Chivers DJ. 1994. Functional anatomy of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 205-228.
27. Clark AB. 1985. Sociality in a nocturnal "solitary" prosimian: Galago crassicaudatus. International Journal of Primatology 6: 581-600.
28. Clutton-Brock TH, Harvey PH. 1977. Primate ecology and social organization. Journal of Zoology, London 183: 1-39.
29. Colyn M. 1994. Données ponderales sur les primates Cércopithécidae d'Afrique Centrale (Bassin du Zaire/Congo). Mammalia 58: 483-487.
30. Cords M. 1987. Forest guenons and Patas monkeys: male-male competition in one-male groups. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 98-111.
31. Cowlishaw G. 1992. Song function in gibbons. Behaviour 121: 131-153.
32. Cristoffer C. 1987. Body size differences between New World and Old World, arboreal, tropical vertebrates: causes and consequences. Journal of Biogeography 14: 165-172.
33. Crockett CM, Eisenberg JF. 1987. Howlers: variation in group size and demography. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 54-68.
34. Crompton RH, Andau PM. 1987. Ranging, activity rhythms, and sociality in free-ranging Tarsius bancanus: a preliminary report. International Journal of Primatology 8: 43-72.
35. Cunha AC da, Barnett A. 1989. Project Uakari. The preliminary survey. Part 1: Zoology. Rio de Janeiro.
36. Dague C, Petter J-J. 1988. Observations sur le Lemur rubriventer dans son milieu naturel. In. Rakotovao L, Barre V. Sayer J, eds. L'Equilibre des Ecosystemes Forestiers à Madagascar: Actes d'un Seminaire International. Cambridge: Page Bros Limited, 78-89.
37. Davies AG. 1994. Colobine populations. In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 285-310.
38. Davies AG & Oates JF. 1994. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
39. Dawson GA. 1977. Composition and stability of social groups of the tamarin, Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi, in Panama: ecological and behavioral implications. In: Kleiman DG, ed. The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 23-37.
40. Defler TR. 1983. Some population characteristics of Callicebus torquatus lugens (Humboldt 1812) (Primates:Cebidae) in eastern Colombia. Acta Zoologica Columbiana 38: 1-9.
41. Dewar RE. 1984. Extinctions in Madagascar: the loss of the subfossil fauna. In: Martin PS, Klein RG, eds. Quaternary Extinctions: a Prehistoric Revolution. Tucson. University of Arizona Press, 574-593.
42. Dietz JM, Baker AJ, Miglioretti D. 1994. Seasonal variation in reproduction, juvenile growth, and adult body mass in golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia). American Journal of Primatology 34: 115-132.
43. Dunbar RIM. 1988. Primate Social Systems. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
44. Dunbar RIM. 1995. Neocortex size and group size in primates: a test of the hypothesis. Journal of Human Evolution 28: 287-296.
45. Egler SG. 1986. Estudos bionomicos de Saguinus bicolor (Spix 1823), em mata tropical alterada, Manaus (AM), Msthesis, Universidade Estadual de Campinas.
46. Eisenberg JF. 1981. The Mammalian Radiations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
47. Emmons L, Gauthier-Hion A, Dubost G. 1981. Community structure of the frugivorous-folivorous forest mammals of Gabon. Journal of Zoology, London 199: 209-222.
48. Emmons L, Gentry A. 1983. Tropical forest structure and the distribution of gliding and prehensile-tailed vertebrates. American Naturalist 121: 513-524.
49. Faria DS. 1986. Tamanho, composicão de um grupo social, area de vivencia do sagui Callithrix jacchus penicillata na mata ciliar do Corrego Copetinga, Brasilia. In: de Mello MT, ed. A Primatologia no Brasil-2, Brasilia: Sociedade Brasileira de Primatologia, 87-105.
50. Fedigan L, Fedigan LM. 1988. Cercopithecus aethiops: a review of field studies. In: Gauthier-Hion A, Bourliere F, Gauthier J-P, Kingdon J eds. A Primate Radiation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 389-411.
51. Fedigan LM, Fedigan L, Chapman C. 1985. A census of Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus monkeys in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. Brenesia 23: 309-322.
52. Fedigan LM, Fedigan L, Chapman C, Glander KE. 1988. Spider monkey home ranges: a comparison of radio telemetry and direct observation. American Journal of Primatology 16: 19-29.
53. Felsenstein J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. American Naturalist 125: 1-25.
54. Ferrari SF, Lopez-Ferrari MA. 1989. A re-evaluation of the social organisation of the Callitrichidae, with reference to the ecological differences between genera. Folia Primatologica 52: 132-147.
55. Fleming T, Breitwisch R, Whitesides G. 1987. Patterns of tropical vertebrate frugivore diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematic 18: 91-109.
56. Fooden J. 1986. Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques. 5. Overview of natural history. Fieldiana 29: 1-21.
57. Fooden J. 1988. Taxonomy and evolution of the sinica group of macaques: 6. Interspecific comparisons and synthesis. Fieldiana 45: 1-44.
58. Ford SM, Davis LC. 1992. Systematics and body size: implications for feeding adaptations in New World monkeys. American Journal of Primatology 88: 415-468.
59. Futuyma DJ. 1986. Evolutionary Biology. Sunderland: Sinauer.
60. Ganzhorn JU. 1988. Food partitioning among Malagasy primates. Oecologia 75: 436-450.
61. Ganzhorn JU. 1989. Niche separation of seven lemur species in the Eastern rainforest of Madagascar. Oecologia 79: 279-286.
62. Ganzhorn JU, Abraham JP, Razanahoera-Rakotomalala M. 1985. Some aspects of the natural history and food selection of Avahi laniger. Primates 26: 452-463.
63. Gauthier-Hion A. 1988a. The diet and dietary habits of forest guenons. In: Gauthier-Hion A, Bourliere F, Gauthier J-P, Kingdon J, eds. A Primate Radiation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 257-283.
64. Gautier-Hion A. 1988b. Polyspecific associations among forest guenons: ecological, behavioural and evolutionary aspects. In: Gauthier-Hion A, Bourliere F, Gauthier J-P, Kingdon J, eds. A Primate Radiation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 452-476
65. Gauthier-Hion A, Bourliere F, Gauthier J-P, Kingdon J, 1988. A Primate Radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
66. Gentry A. 1988. Changes in plant community diversity and floristic composition of environmental and geographical gradients. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75: 1-34.
67. Gentry A. 1993. Diversity and floristic composition of lowland tropical forest in Africa and South America. In: Goldblatt P, ed. Biological Relationships between Africa and South America. New Haven: Yale University Press, 500-547.
68. Gevaerts H. 1992. Birth seasons of Cercopithecus, Cercocebus and Colobus in Zaire. Folia Primatologica 59: 105-113.
69. Gittleman JL. 1989. Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
70. Glander KE. 1994. Morphometrics and growth in captive aye-ayes (Daubentonia madagascariensis) Folia Primatologica 62: 108-114.
71. Glander KE, Fedigan LM, Fedigan L, Chapman G. 1991. Field methods for capture and measurement of three monkey species in Costa Rica. Folia Primatologica 57: 70-82.
72. Glander KE, Wright PC, Daniels PS, Merenlender AM. 1992. Morphometrics and testicle size of six rainforest lemur species from southeastern Madagascar. Journal of Human Evolution 22: 1-17.
73. Godfrey L, Sutherland MR, Paine RR, Williams FL, Boy DS, Vuillaume-Randriamanantena M. 1995. Limb joint surface areas and their ratios in Malagasy lemurs and other mammals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 97: 11-36.
74. Goldizen AW. 1987. Tamarins and marmosets: communal care of offspring. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 34-43.
75. Goldizen AW, Mendelson J, Vlaardingen M van, Terborgh J. 1996. Saddle-back tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis) reproductive strategies: evidence from a thirteen-year study of a marked population. American Journal of Primatology 38: 57-83.
76. Goodman SM. 1994. The enigma of anti-predator behavior in lemurs: evidence of a large extinct eagle on Madagascar. International Journal of Primatology 15: 129-134.
77. Groves C. 1980. Speciation in Macaca: the view from Sulawesi. In: Lindburg D, ed. The Macaques. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 84-124.
78. Grzimek B. 1988. Enzyklopädie der Säugetiere. München: Kindler.
79. Harcourt CS. 1987. Brief trap/retrap study of the brown mouse lemur (Microcebus rufus). Folia Primatologica 49: 209-211.
80. Harcourt CS, Nash LT. 1986. Social organization of galagos in Kenyan coastal forest: I. Galago zanzibaricus. American Journal of Primatology 10: 339-355.
81. Harcourt CS, Thornback J. 1990. Lemurs of Madagascar and the Comoros. The IUCN Red Data Book. Gland, CH and Cambridge, UK: IUCN.
82. Haring DM, Wright PC. 1989. Hand-raising a Phillipine tarsier, Tarsius syrichta. Zoo Biology 8: 265-274.
83. Hartwig W. 1995. A giant New World monkey from the Pleistocene of Brazil. Journal of Human Evolution 28: 189-195.
84. Harvey PH, Pagel MD. 1991. The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
85. Harvey PH, Martin RD, Clutton-Brock TH. 1987. Life histories in comparative perspective. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 181-196.
86. Hernandez Camacho J, Defler TR. 1985. Some aspects of the conservation of non-human primates in Colombia. Primate Conservation 6: 42-50.
87. Horwich RH, Gebhard K. 1983. Roaring rhythms in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) of Belize, Primates 24: 290-296.
88. Isbell LA, Young TP. 1993. Human presence reduces predation in a free-ranging vervet monkey population in Kenya. Animal Behaviour 45: 1233-1235.
89. Izawa K. 1978. A field study of the ecology and behavior of the black-mantled tamarin (Saguinus nigricollis). Primates 19: 241-274.
90. Jablonski N, Ruliang P. 1995. Sexual dimorphism in the snub-nosed langurs (Colobinae: Rhinopithecus). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 96: 251-272.
91. Kappeler PM. 1990. The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in prosimian primates. American Journal of Primatology 21: 201-214.
92. Kappeler PM. 1991. Patterns of sexual dimorphism in body weight among prosimian primates. Folia Primatologica 57: 132-146.
93. Kappeler PM. 1993a. Female dominance in primates and other mammals. In: Bateson PPG, Klopfer PH, Thompson NS, eds. Perspectives in Ethology. Volume 10. Behaviour and Evolution. New York: Plenum Press, 143-158.
94. Kappeler PM. 1993b. Sexual selection and lemur social systems. In: Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU, eds. Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York: Plenum Press, 223-240.
95. Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU. 1993. Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York: Plenum Press.
96. Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU. 1994. The evolution of primate communities and societies in Madagascar. Evolutionary Anthropology 2: 159-171.
97. Karr JR. 1980. Geographical variation in the avifaunas of tropical forest undergrowth. Auk 97: 283-298.
98. Kawamura S, Norikoshi K, Azuma N. 1991. Observation of Formosan monkeys (Macaca cyclopis) in Taipingshan Taiwan. In: Ehara A, Kimura T, Takenaka O, Iwamoto M. eds. Primatology Today. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 97-100.
99. Kay RF. 1984. On the use of anatomical features to infer foraging behavior in extinct primates. In: Rodman PS, Cant JGH, eds. Adaptations for Foraging in Non-Human. Primates. New York: Columbia University Press, 21-53.
100. Kinzey WG, Becker M. 1983. Activity patterns of the masked titi monkey, Callicebus personatus. Primates 24: 337-343.
101. Kleiman DG, Beck BB, Dietz JM, Dietz LA, Ballou JD, Coimbra-Filho AF. 1986. Conservation program for the golden lion tamarn: captive research and management, ecological studies, educational strategies, and reintroduction. In: Benirschke K, ed. Primates - The Road to Self-sustaining Populations. New York: Springer, 959-979.
102. König A. 1992. Untersuchungen zum Scanning-Verhalten beim Weißbuschelaffen (Callithrix jacchus Erxleben 1777). PhD thesis, Universitat Göttingen.
103. Kurup G, Kumar A. 1993. Time budget and activity patterns of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus). International Journal of Primatology 14: 27-39.
104. Lee AK, Cockburn A. 1985. Evolutionary Ecology of Marsupials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
105. Leigh E. 1975. Structure and climate in tropical rain forest. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 6: 67-86.
106. Lemos de Sá RM, Glander KE. 1993. Capture techniques and morphometrics for the woolley spider monkey, or munqui (Brachyteles arachnoides, E. Geoffroy 1806). American Journal of Primatology 29: 145-153.
107. Lorini ML, Persson VG. 1990. Nova espécie de Leontopithecus Lesson, 1840, do sul do Brasil (Primates, Callitrichidae). Boletim do Museu Nacional N.S. 338: 1-14.
108. Mack A. 1993. The sizes of vertebrate-dispersed fruits: a neotropical-paleotropical comparison. American Naturalist 142: 840-856.
109. MacKinnon J, MacKinnon K. 1980. The behavior of wild spectral tarsiers. International Journal of Primalotogy 1: 361-379.
110. Maddison W, Maddison D. 1992. MacClade: Analysis of phylogeny and character evolution. Sunderland: Sinauer.
111. Mares MA. 1976. Convergent evolution of desert rodents: multivariate analysis and Zoogeographic implications. Palaeobiology 2: 39-63.
112. Martin RD. 1990. Primate Origins and Evolution. London: Chapman & Hall.
113. McNab BK. 1986. The influence of food habits on the energetics of eutherian mammals. Ecological Monographs 56: 1-19.
114. Medel RG. 1995. Convergence and historical effects in harvester ant assemblages of Australia, North America, and South America. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 55: 29-44.
115. Meier B, Albignac R. 1991. Rediscovery of Allocebus trichotis Gunther 1875 (Primates) in Northeast Madagascar. Folia Primatologica 56: 57-63.
116. Meier B, Albignac R, Peyrieras A, Rumpler Y, Wright P. 1987. A new species of Hapalemur (Primates) from South East Madagascar. Folia Primatologica 48: 211-215.
117. Melnick DJ, Pearl MC. 1987. Cercopithecines in multimale groups. genetic diversity and population structure. In. Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 121-134.
118. Mendes SL. 1989. Estudo ecologico de Alouatta fusca (Primates:Cebidae) na Estacão Biologica de Caratinga, MG. Revista Nordestina de Biologia 6: 71-104.
119. Meyers DM. 1993. The effects of resource seasonally on behaviour and reproduction in the golden-crowned sifaka (Propithecus tattersalli, Simons, 1988) in tree Malagasy forests. PhD thesis, Duke University.
120. Meyers DM, Wright PC. 1993. Resource tracking: food availability and Propithecus seasonal reproduction. In: Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU, eds. Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York. Plenum Press, 179-192.
121. Milton K, Mittermeier RA. 1977. A brief survey of the primates of Coiba Island, Panama. Primates 18: 931-936.
122. Mitchell J. 1989. Resources, group behavior, and infant development in white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus capuchinus. PhD thesis, University of California, Berkely.
123. Mitchell CL, Boinski S, van Schaik CP. 1991. Competitive regimes and female bonding in two species of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi and S. sciureus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 28: 55-60.
124. Morland HS. 1991. Social organization and ecology of black and white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) in a lowland rainforest, Nosy Mangabe, Madagascar. PhD thesis, Yale University.
125. Muskin, A. 1984. Field notes and geographic distribution of Callithrix aurita in eastern Brazil. American Journal of Primatology 7: 377-380.
126. Musser G, Dagosto M. 1987. The identity of Tarsius pumilus, a pygmy species endemic to the montane forests of central Sulawesi. American Museum Novitates 2867: 1-53.
127. Nash LT, Bearder SK, Olson TR. 1989. Synopsis of Galago species characteristics. International Journal of Primatology 10: 57-80.
128. Nash LT, Harcourt CS. 1986. Social organization of galagos in Kenyan coastal forest: II. Galago garnettii. American Journal of Primatology 10: 357-369.
129. Newton PN, Dunbar RIM. 1994. Colobine monkey societies. In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 311-346.
130. Neyman PF. 1977. Aspects of the ecology and social organization of free-ranging cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) and the conservation status of the species. In: Kleiman DG, ed. The Biology and Conservation of the Callitrichidae. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 39-71.
131. Nishida T, Hiraiwa-Hasegawa M. 1987. Chimpanzees and bonobos: cooperative relationships among males In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago University of Chicago Press, 165-177.
132. Oates JF. 1994. The natural history of African colobines. In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 75-128.
133. Oates JF, Davies AG, Delson E. 1994. The diversity of living colobines. In: Davies AG, Oates JF, eds. Colobine Monkeys: Their Ecology, Behaviour and Evolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 45-74.
134. Oates JF, Whitesides GH, Davies AG, Waterman FG, Green SM, Dasilva GL, Mole S. 1990. Determinants of variation in tropical forest biomass: new evidence from West Africa. Ecology 71: 328-343.
135. Oliveira JMS, Lima MG, Bonvincino C, Ayres JM, Fleagle JG. 1985. Preliminary notes on the ecology and behavior of the Guianan saki (Pithecia pithecia, Linnaeus 1766; Cebidae, Primates). Acta Amazonica 15: 249-263.
136. Pearson D. 1977. A pantropieal comparison of bird community structure on six lowland forest sites. Condor 79: 232-244.
137. Pereira ME. 1993. Agonistic interaction, dominance relation, and ontogenetic trajectories in ringtailed lemurs. In. Pereira ME, Fairbanks LA, eds. Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behaviour. New York: Oxford University Press, 285-305.
138. Peres C. 1993. Notes on the ecology of buffy saki monkeys (Pithecia albicans): a canopy seed predator. American Journal of Primatology 31: 129-140.
139. Peres C. 1994a. Diet and feeding ecology of gray woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha. cana) in central Amazonia: comparisons with other atelines. International Journal of Primatology 15: 333-372.
140. Peres C. 1994b. Which are the largest New World monkeys? Journal of Human Evolution 26: 245-249.
141. Petter JJ. 1988. Contribution of l'étude du Cheirogaleus medius dans le forêt de Morondava In: Rakotovao L. Barre V, Sayer J, eds. L'équilibre des écosystèmes forestiers à Madagascar. Gland, Cambridge: CN, 57-60.
142. Petter JJ, Albignac R, Rumpler Y. 1977. Faune de Madagascar 44: Mammiferes Lemuriens (Primates Prosimien). Paris: ORSTOM and CNRS.
143. Petter JJ, Hladik CM. 1970. Observation sur le domaine vital et la densité de population de Loris tardigradus dans les forêts de Ceylan. Mammalia 34: 394-409.
144. Plavcan MJ, van Schaik CP. 1992. Intrasexual competition and canine dimorphism in primates. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87: 461-477.
145. Pollock JI. 1975. Field observations on Indri indri. a preliminary report. In: Tattersall I, Sussman RW, eds. Lemur Biology. New York: Plenum Press, 287-311.
146. Pollock JI. 1986. A note on the ecology and behaviour of Hapalemur griseus. Primate Conservation 7: 97-101.
147. Randall J. 1994. Convergence and divergences in communication and social organisation of desert rodents. Australian Journal of Zoology 42: 405-433.
148. Ratsirarson J, Rumpler Y. 1988. Contribution à l'étude comparée de l'éco-éthologie de deux espèces de lémuriens, Lepilemur mustelinus (Geoffroy 1850), et Lepilemur septentrionalis (Rumpler et Albignac 1975). In: Rakotovao L, Barre V, Sayer J, eds. L'Equilibre des Ecoystemes Forestiers a Madagascar: Actes d'un Seminaire International. Cambridge: Page Bros Limited, 100-102.
149. Reed KE, Fleagle JG. 1995. Geographic and climate control of primate diversity. Proceedings National Academy of Science USA 92: 7874-7876.
150. Rensch B. 1959. Evolution above the Species Level. New York: Columbia University Press.
151. Richard AF. 1985. Primates in Nature. New York: Freeman and Co.
152. Richard AF. 1987. Malagasy prosimians: female dominance. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 25-33.
153. Richard AF, Dewar RE. 1991. Lemur ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 22: 145-175.
154. Richard AF, Rakotomanga P, Schwartz M. 1991. Demography of Propithecus verreauxi at Beza Mahafali, Madagascar: Sex ratio, survival, and fertility. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 84: 307-322.
155. Robinson JG. 1988. Group size in wedge-capped capuchin monkeys, Cebus olwaceus, and the reproductive success of males and females. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 23: 187-197.
156. Robinson JG, Janson CH. 1987. Capuchins, squirrel monkeys, and atelines: socioecological convergence with Old World primates. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 69-82.
157. Robinson JG, Wright PC, Kinzey WG. 1987. Monogamous cebids and their relatives: intergroup calls and spacing. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 44-53.
158. Rockwood LL, Glander KE. 1979. Howling monkeys and leaf-cutting ants: comparative foraging in a tropical deciduous forest. Biotropica 11: 1-10.
159. Rodman PS, Mitani JC. 1987. Orangutans: sexual dimorphism in a solitary species. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 146-154.
160. Roosmalen M. 1985. Habitat preferences, diet, feeding strategy and social organization of the black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus paniscus) in Surinam. Acta Amazonica 15: 1-238.
161. Rosenberger AL, Strier KB. 1989. Adaptive radiation of the ateline primates. Journal of Human Evolution 18: 717-750.
162. Ross C. 1991. Life history patterns of New World monkeys. International Journal of Primatology 12: 481-502.
163. Rumpler Y, Dutrillaux B. 1986. Evolution chromosomique des prosimiens. Mammalia 50: 82-107.
164. Russell RJ. 1977. The behaviour, ecology, and environmental physiology of a nocturnal primate, Lepilemur mustelinus. PhD thesis, Duke University.
165. Rylands AB. 1982. The behaviour and ecology of three species of marmosets and tamarins (Callitrichidae, Primates) in Brazil. PhD thesis, Cambridge University.
166. Saxton J, Evans J. 1984. Amazonian primate conservation project. Cambridge Expedition Journal 1984: 4-6.
167. Schluter D. 1986. Tests for similarity and convergence of finch communities. Ecology 67: 1073-1085.
168. Schmid J, Kappeler PM. 1994. Sympatric mouse lemurs (Microcebus ssp.) in Western Madagascar. Folia Primatologica 63: 162-170.
169. Schmidt-Nielsen K. 1984. Scaling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
170. Siegel S, Castellan NJ. 1988. Nonparametnc Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill.
171. Simons E. 1994. The giant aye-aye Daubentonia robusta. Folia Primatologica 62: 14-21.
172. Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT. 1987. Primate Societies. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
173. Snowdon CT, Soini P. 1988. The tamarins, genus Saguinus. In: Mittermeier RA, Rylands AB, Coimbra-Filho AF, Fonseca GAB. eds, Ecology and Behaviour of Neotropical Primates. Washington, World Wildlife Fund, 223-298.
174. Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ. 1981. Biometry. New York: Freeman.
175. Soini P. 1986. A synecological study of a primate community in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, Peru. Primate Conservation 7: 63-71.
176. Soini P. 1988. El huapo (Pithecia monachus): dinámica poblacional y organización social. Informe de Pacaya 27: 1-24
177. Soini P. 1990. Ecología y dinámica poblacional de pichico Saguinus fuscicollis (Primates, Callitrichidae). In: DGFF/IVITA/OPS, eds. La Primatología en el Perú. Investigaciones Primatológicas (1973-1985). Lima: Imprenta Propaceb, 202-253.
178. Soini P, Soini M de 1982. Distributión geográfica y ecología poblacional de Saguinus mystax (Primates, Callitrichidae). Informe de Pacaya 6: 1-56.
179. Soini P, Soini M de. 1990a. Un estudio y saca experimental de Cebuella pygmaea. In: DGFF/IVITA/OPS, eds. La Primatología en el Perú. Investigaciones Primatológicas (1973-1985). Lima: Imprenta Propaceb, 104-121.
180. Soini P, Soini M de. 1990b. Distribution geografica y ecologia poblacional de Saguinus mystax. In: DGFF/IVITA/OPS, eds. La Primatología en el Perú. Investigaciones Primatológicas (1973-1985). Lima: Imprenta Propaceb, 272-313.
181. Stallings JR, Mittermeier RA. 1983. The black-tailed marmoset (Callithrix argentata melanura) recorded from Paraguay. American Journal of Primatology 4: 159-163.
182. Stammbach E. 1987. Desert, forest and montane baboons: multi-level societies. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 112-120
183. Stephan H, Bauchot R. 1965. Hirn-Korpergewichtsbeziehungen bei den Halbaffen (Prosimii). Acta. Zoologica 56: 209-231.
184. Sterling E. 1993. Patterns of range use and social organization in aye-ayes (Daubentoma madagascariensis) on Nosy Mangabe. In: Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU, eds. Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York: Plenum Press, 1-10.
185. Stevenson PR, Quinones MJ, Ahumada JA. 1994. Ecological strategies of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha) at Tinguana National Park, Colombia. American Journal of Primatology 32: 123-140.
186. Stewart K, Harcourt A. 1987. Gorillas: Variation in female relationships. In: Smuts BB, Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM, Wrangham RW, Struhsaker TT, eds. Primate Societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 155-164.
187. Strier KB, Mendes FDC, Rimoli J, Rimoli AO. 1993. Demography and social structure of one group of muriquis. International Journal of Primatology 14: 513-526.
188. Sussman RW. 1974. Ecological distinctions of sympatric species of Lemur. In: Martin RD, Doyle GA, Walker AC, eds. Prosimian Biology. London. Duckworth, 75-108
189. Sussman RW. 1991. Demography and social organization of free-ranging Lemur catta in the Beza Mahafaly Reserve, Madagascar. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 84: 43-58.
190. Symington MM. 1987. Sex ratio and maternal rank in wild spider monkeys: why daughters disperse. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20: 421-425.
191. Tattersall I. 1976. Group structure and activity rhythm in Lemur mongoz (Primates, Lemuriformes) on Anjouan and Moheli Island, Comoro archipelago. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 53: 369-380.
192. Tattersall I. 1987. Cathemeral activity in primates: a definition. Folia Primatologica 49: 200-202.
193. Tattersall I. 1993. Madagascar's lemurs. Scientific American, January: 90-97.
194. Terborgh J. 1983. Five New World Primates: A Study in Comparative Ecology. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
195. Terborgn J. 1992. Diversity and the Tropical Rainforest. New York: Scientific American Library.
196. Terborgh J, Janson CH. 1986. The socioecology of primate groups. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17: 111-135.
197. Terborgh J, van Schaik CP. 1987. Convergence vs. nonconvergence in primate communities. In: Gee J, Giller P, eds. Organisation of Communities. Oxford: Blackwell, 205-226.
198. Thorington RW, Ruiz JC, Eisenberg JF. 1984. A study of a black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) population in Northern Argentina. American Journal of Primatology 6: 356-366.
199. Tremble M, Muskita Y, Supriatna J. 1993. Field observations of Tarsius dianae at Lore Limdu National Park, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity 1: 67-76.
200. Turner T, Anapol F, Jolly C. 1994. Body weights of adult vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) at four sites in Kenya. Folia Primatologica 63: 177-179.
201. van Schaik CP. 1983. Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour 87: 120-144.
202. van Schaik CP, Hörstermann M. 1994. Predation risk and the number of adult males in a primate group: a comparative test. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 35: 261-272.
203. van Schaik CP, Kappeler PM. 1993. Life history, activity period and lemur social systems. In. Kappeler PM, Ganzhorn JU, eds. Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis. New York: Plenum Press, 241-260.
204. van Schaik CP, Terborgh JW, Wright SJ. 1993. The phenology of tropical forests: adaptive significance and consequences for primary consumers. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 24: 353-377.
205. Walter H. 1984. Vegetation of the Earth and Ecological Systems of the Geo-biosphere. New York: Springer.
206. Wilson EO. 1975. Sociobiology. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
207. Wilson JM, Stewart PD, Ramangason GS, Denning AM, Hutchings MS. 1989. Ecology and conservation of the crowned lemur, Lemur coronatus, at Ankarana, N. Madagascar. Folia Primatologica 52: 1-26.
208. Wright PC. 1978. Home range, activity pattern, and agonistic encounters of a group of night monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) in Peru. Folia Primatologica 29: 43-55.
209. Wright PC. 1985. The costs and benefits of nocturnality for Aotus trivirgatus (the night monkey). PhD thesis, City University of New York.
210. Wright PC. 1989. The nocturnal primate niche in the New World. Journal of Human Evolution 18: 635-658.
211. Wright PC, Daniels PS, Meyers DM, Overdorff DJ, Rabesoa J. 1986. A census and study of Hapalemur and Propithecus in southeastern Madagascar. Primate Conservation 8: 84-88.
212. Yoder AD. 1994. Relative position of the Cheirogaleidae in strepsirhine phylogeny: a comparison of morphological and molecular methods and results. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 94: 25-46.