Oxidative reactions and schizophrenia: A review-discussion

Schizophrenia Research

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 357-364

  Smythies, John R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Aminochrome; Excitoneurotoxicity; Neuromelanin; PGH synthase; ROS

Indexed keywords

1,4 BENZOQUINONE; ADRENOCHROME; AMINOCHROME; ARACHIDONIC ACID; CATECHOLAMINE; CYTOCHROME P450; NEUROMELANIN; PROSTAGLANDIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

HUMAN; OXIDATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 0030933056     PISSN: 09209964     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0920-9964(97)00005-4     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. Abdalla, D.S.P., Monteiro, H.P., Oliveira, J.A.C. et al. (1986) Activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in schizophrenics and manic-depressive patients. Clin. Chem. 32, 805-807.
2. Adams, J., Collaco-Moraes, Y. and de Belleroche, J. (1996) Cyclooxygenase-2 induction in cerebral cortex: an intracellular response to synaptic excitation. J. Neurochem. 66, 6-13.
3. Akil, M. and Lewis, D.A. (1995) The catecholaminergic innervation of the human entorhinal cortex: alteration in schizophrenia. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 21, 238.
4. Amano, T., Ujihara, H., Matsubayashi, H. et al. (1994) Dopamine-induced protection of striatal neurons against kainate receptor-mediated glutamate cytotoxicity in vitro. Brain Res. 655, 61-69.
5. Avoca, P., Solano, F., Salinas, C. et al. (1992) Regulation of the final phase of mammalian melanogenesis. Eur. J. Biochem. 208, 155-163.
6. Baez, S., Linderson, Y. and Segura-Aguilar, J. (1995) Superoxide dismutase and catalase enhance autoxidation during one-electron reduction of aminochrome by NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase. Bicohem. Mol. Med. 45, 12-18.
7. Baksi, K. (1996) Hydroxyl radical formation during apoptosis induced by 2′-methyl-MPTP in PC12 cells. FASEB J. 10, A1089.
8. Beaudet, A. and Descaines, L. (1990) The monoamine innervation of rat cerebral cortex: synaptic and non-synaptic terminals. Neuroscience 3, 851-860
9. Ben-Shacher, D., Zuk, B. and Glinka, Y. (1995) Dopamine neurotoxicity: inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. J. Neurochem. 64, 718-723.
10. Benes, F.M. (1995) Development of the glutamate, GABA, and dopamine systems in relation to NRH-mediated neurotoxicity. Biol. Psychiatry 38, 783-787.
11. Breder, C.D., Smith, W.L., Raz, A. et al. (1992) Distribution and characterization of cyclooxygenase immunoreactivity in the ovine brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 322, 409-438.
12. Buckman, T.D., Kling, A.S., Eiduson, S. et al. (1987) Glutathione peroxidase and CT scan abnormalities in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 22, 1349-1356.
13. Buckman, T.D., Kling, A., Sutphin, M.S. et al. (1990) Platelet glutathione peroxidase and monoamine oxidase activity in schizophrenics with CT scan abnormalities: relation to psychosocial variables. Psychiat. Res. 31, 1-14.
14. Cadet, J.L. and Kahler, L.A. (1994) Free radical mechanisms in schizophrenia and tardive dyskinesia. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 18, 457-467.
15. Cadet, J.L. and Lohr, J.B. (1987) Free radicals and the developmental pathobiology of schizophrenic burnout. Integr. Psychiatry 51, 40-48.
16. Carlsson, A., Waters, N. and Hansson, L.O. (1994) Neurotransmitter aberrations in schizophrenia: new findings. In: R. Fog, J. Gerlach and R. Hemmingsen (Eds.), Schizophrenia. An Integrated View. Munksgard, Copenhagen.
17. Carstam, R., Brinck, C., Hindemith-Augustson, A. et al. (1991) The neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1097, 152-160.
18. Ciani, E., Groneng, L., Voltattorni, M. et al. (1996) Inhibition of free radical production or free radical scavenging protects from excitatoxic cell death mediated by gutamate in cultures of cerebellar granule cells. Brain Res. 728, 1-6.
19. Cook, J.A., Wink, D.A., Blount, V. et al. (1996) Role of antioxidants in the nitric oxide-elicited inhibition of dopamine uptake in cultured mesencephalic neurons. Insights into potential mechanisms of nitric oxide-mediated neurotoxicity. Neurochem. Int. 28, 609-617.
20. Costa, C., Bertazzo, A., Allegri, G. et al. (1992) Melanin biosynthesis from dopamine. II. A mass spectrometric and collisional spectroscopic investigation. Pigment Cell Res. 5, 122-131.
21. Coyle, J.T. (1996) How neurons die. Biol. Psychiatry 39, 611.
22. Coyle, J.T. and Puttfarcken, P. (1993) Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders. Science 262, 689-695.
23. Cramer, K.S. and Sur, M. (1995) Activity-dependent remodelling of connections in the mammalian visual system. Curr. Op. Neurobiol. 5, 106-111.
24. Crick, F. (1982) Do dendritic spines twitch? TINS, 5, 44-46.
25. Dubinsky, J.M., Kristal, B.S., Elizondo-Fournier, M. et al. (1995) An obligatory role for oxygen in the early stages of glutamate-induced, delayed neuronal death. Neuroscience 15, 7071-7078.
26. Dykens, J.A., Stern, A. and Trenkner, E. (1987) Mechanism of kainate toxicity to cerebellar neurons in vitro is analogous to reperfusion tissue injury. J. Neurochem. 49, 1222-1228.
27. Edelman, G.M. and Gaily, J.A. (1992) Nitric oxide: linking space and time in the brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 11651-11652.
28. Egan, M.F., El-Mallakh, R.S., Suddath, R.L. et al. (1992) Cerebrospinal fluid and serum levels of neuron-specific enolase in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiat. Res. 43, 187-195.
29. Favit, A., Sortino, M.M., Aleppo, G. et al. (1993) Protection by dihydroergocryptine of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 73, 224-228.
30. Feinberg, I. (1983) Schizophrenia: caused by a fault in programmed synaptic elimination during adolescence. J. Psychiat. Res. 17, 319-334.
31. Galzigna, L. (1972) Interaction of chlorpromazine with adrenochrome and intereference of a possible endogenous psychotogenic agent with some synaptic enzyme activities. Biochem. Pharmacol. 21, 203-207.
32. Garey, L.J., Ong, U.Y., Patel, T.S. et al. (1995) Reduction in dendritic spine number on cortical neurons in schizophrenia. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 21, 236.
33. 2 activity in schizophrenia: a replicative study. Biol. Psychiatry 28, 495-501.
34. Glantz, L.A. and Lewis, D.A. (1995) Assessment of spine density on layer III pyramidal cells in the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic subjects. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 21, 239.
35. Grof, S. (1963) Clinical and experimental study of central effects of adrenochrome. J. Neuropsychiatr. 5, 33-50.
36. Harris, K.M. and Kater, S.B. (1994) Dendritic spines: cellular specializations imparting both stability and flexibility to synaptic function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 17, 341-371.
37. Hastings, T.G. (1995) Enzymatic oxidation of dopamine: the role of prostaglandin H synthase. J. Neurochem. 64, 919-924.
38. Hawkins, D. and Pauling, P. (Eds.) (1973) Orthomolecular Psychiatry. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.
39. Hoffer, A., Osmond, H. and Smythies, J.R. (1954) Schizophrenia. A new approach. Part II. J. Ment. Sci. 100, 29-45.
40. Hoffman, R.E. and McGlashan, T.H. (1993) Parallel distributed processing and the emergence of schizophrenic symptoms. Schizophr. Bull. 19, 119-140.
41. Holinger, G.D. Rosen, G.D. and Galaburda, A.M. (1995) Decreased neuronal density in supragranular layers of area TPT of the superior temporal gyrus in schizophrenics. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 21, 238.
42. Horrobin, D.F, Manku, M.S., Morse-Fisher, N. et al. (1990) Essential fatty acids in plasma phospholipids in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 25, 562-568.
43. Horton, K., Forsyth, C.S., Sibtain, N. et al. (1993) Ubiquitination as a probe for neurodegeneration in the brain in schizophrenia: the prefrontal cortex. Psychiat. Res. 48, 145-152.
44. Kaufman, L.E., Worley, P.F., Pegg, J. et al. (1996) COX-2, a synaptically induced enzyme, is expressed by excitatory neurons at postsynaptic sites in rat cerebral cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93, 2317-2321.
45. Kötter, R. (1994) Postsynaptic integration of glutamatergic and dopaminergic signals in the striatum. Prog. Neurobiol. 44, 163-196.
46. Kullman, D.M., Erdemli, G. and Asztély, F. (1996) LTP of AMPA and NMDA receptor-mediated signals: evidence for presynaptic expression and extrasynaptic glutamate spill-over. Neuron 17, 461-474.
47. Lafon-Cazai, M. Pietri, S., Culcase, M. et al. (1993) NMDA dependent superoxide production and neurotoxicity. Nature 364, 535-537.
48. Lieb, K., Andrae, J., Reisert, I. et al. (1995) Neurotoxicity of dopamine and protective effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist AP-5 differ between male and female neurons. Exp. Neurol. 134, 222-229.
49. Liu, J. and Mori, A. (1994) Monoamine metabolism provides an antioxidant defence in the brain against oxidant- and free radical-induced damage. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 302, 118-127.
50. Louis, J.-C., Magal, E. and Varon, S. (1992) Receptor-mediated toxicity of norepinephrine on cultured catecholaminergic neurons of the cat brain stem. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 262, 1274-1283.
51. MacGregor, D.G., Higgins, M.J., Jones, P.A. et al. (1996) Ascorbate attenuates the systemic kainate-induced neurotoxicity in the rat hippocampus. Brain Res. 727, 133-144.
52. Mahadik, S.P. and Mukherjee, S. (1996) Free radical pathology and antioxidant defense in schizophrenia: a review. Schizophr. Res. 19, 1-17.
53. Mattammal, M.B., Strong, R., Lakshmi, V.M. et al. (1995) Prostaglandin H synthetase-mediated metabolism of dopamine: implication for Parkinson's disease. J. Neurochem. 64, 1645-1654.
54. Matthews, S.B., Henderson, A.H. and Campbell, A.K. (1985) The adrenochrome pathway: the major route for adrenalin catabolism by polymorphnuclear leucocytes. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 17, 339-348.
55. Michel, P.P. and Hefti, F. (1990) Toxicity of 6-hydroxydopamine and dopamine for dopaminergic neurons in culture. J. Neurosci. Res. 76, 428-435,
56. Ohmori, T., Abekawa, T. and Koyama, T. (1996) The role of glutamate in behavioral and neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine. Neurochem. Int. 29, 301-307.
57. Offen, D., Ziv, I., Sternin, H. et al. (1996) Prevention of dopamine-induced cell death by thiol antioxidants: possible implications for treatment of Parkinson's disease. Exp. Neurol. 141, 32-39.
58. Olney, J.W. and Farber, N.B. (1995) Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 998-1007.
59. Pakkenberg, B. (1993) Total nerve cell numbers in neocortex in chronic schizophrenics and controls estimated using optical dissectors. Biol. Psychiatry 34, 768-772.
60. Patel, M., Day, B.J., Crapo, J.D. et al. (1996) Requirement for superoxide in excitotoxic cell death. Neuron 16, 345-355.
61. Rebec, G.V. and Pierce, R.C. (1994) A vitamin as neuromodulator: ascorbate release into the extracellular fluid of the brain regulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission. Prog. Neurosci. 43, 537-565.
62. Reddy, R., Sahebarao, M.P., Mukherjee, S. et al. (1991) Enzymes of the antioxidant defense system in chronic schizophrenic patients. Biol. Psychiatry 30, 409-412.
63. Rinkel, M. and Solomon, A.C. (1957) Chemical theories of psychosis. J. Clin. Exp. Psychopathol. 18, 323-335.
64. Roberts, R.C., Gauther, L.A., Peretti, F. et al. (1995) Structural pathology in schizophrenia: a postmortem ultrastructure study. Abstr. Soc. Neurosci. 21, 237.
65. Rothman, S.M. and Olney, J.W. (1995) Excitotoxicity and the NMDA receptor - still lethal after eight years. TINS 18, 57-58.
66. Rothstein, J.D., Bristol, L.A., Hosler, B. et al. (1994) Chronic inhibition of superoxide dismutase produces apoptotic death of spinal neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 4155-4159.
67. Schultzberg, M., Segura-Aquilar, J and Lind, C. (1988) Distribution of DT diaphorase in the rat brain: biochemical and immunohistological studies. Neuroscience 27, 763-776.
68. Schwarz, B.E., Sem-Jacobsen, C. and Petersen, M.C. (1956a) Effects of mescaline, LSD-25 and adrenochrome on depths electrograms in man. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 75, 579-587.
69. Schwarz, B.E., Wakim, K.G., Bickford, R. et al. (1956b) Behavioral and electroencephalographic effects of hallucinogenic drugs: changes in cats on intraventricular injection. Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry 75, 83-90.
70. Segal, M. (1995) Dendritic spines for neuroprotection: a hypothesis. TINS, 18, 468-471.S
71. Segura-Aguilar, J. (1996) Peroxidase activity of liver microsomal vitamin D 25-hydroxylase and cytochrome P450 1A2 catalyzes 25-hydroxylation of vitamin D3 and oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome. Biochem. Mol. Med. 58, 122-129.
72. 3+-induced neurotoxicity of dopamine prevention of quinone-deried oxygen toxicity by DT-diaphorase and superoxide dismutase. Chem. Biol. Interact. 72, 309-324.
73. Segura-Aguilar, J. Baez, S., Widersten, M. et al. (1996a) Antioxidant function of human glutathione transferase M1b in the reduction of aminochrome. Proceedings VIII Biennial Meeting. International Society for Free Radical Research. 1-5 October, Barcelona, Spain, pp. 245-246.
74. Segura-Aguilar, J., Baez, S., Widersten, M. et al. (1996b) Human class Mu glutathione transferases, in particular isoenzyme M2-2, catalyze detoxication of the dopamine metabolite aminochrome. Submitted to J. Biol. Chem.
75. Selemon, L.D., Rajkowska, G. and Goldman-Rakic, P.S. (1995) Abnormally high neuronal density in the schizophrenic cortex. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52, 805-818.
76. Sesack, S.R. and Pickel, V.M. (1990) In the rat nucleus accumbens, hippocampal and catecholaminergic terminals converge on spiny neurons and are in apposition to each other. Brain Res. 527, 266-279.
77. Siman, R. and Noszek, J.C. (1988) Excitatory amono acids activate calpain I and induce structural protein breakdown in vivo. Neuron 1, 279-287.
78. Smiley, J.F., Levey, A.I., Ciliax, B.J. et al. (1994) D1 dopamine receptor immunoreactivity in human and monkey cerebral cortex: predominant and extrasynaptic localizations in dendritic spines. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 5720-5721.
79. Smit, N.P.M., Pavel, S, Kammayer, A. et al. (1990) Determination of catechol-O-methyl transferase activity in relation to melanin metabolism using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorimetric detection. Anal. Biochem. 190, 286-291.
80. Smythies, J.R. (1996) On the function of neuromelanin. Proc. Roy. Soc. London B, 263, 491-496.
81. Smythies, J.R., Gottfreis, C.-G. and Regland, B. (1997) Disturbances of one-carbon metabolism in neuropsychiatric disorders: a review. Biol Psychiatry 41, 230-233.
82. Squires, R.F., Lajtha, A., Saederup, E. et al. (1993) Reduced binding in cingulate cortex and hippocampus of postmortem schizophrenic brains: is selective loss of glutamatergic neurons associated with major psychoses? Neurochem. Res. 18, 219-223.
83. Taborsky, R.G. (1968) Indoxyl derivatives: potential psychotropic metabolites. Int. J. Neuropharmacol. 7, 483-486.
84. Taubman, G. and Jantz, H. (1957) Untersuchung über die dem adrenochrom zugeschrieben psychotoxischen wirkungen. Nervenartz 28,485-488.
85. Thore, C.R., Nam, M.J. and Busija, D.W. (1996) Immunofluorescent localization of constituitive and inducible prostaglandin H synthase in ovine astroglia. J. Comp. Neurol. 367, 1-9.
86. Volterra, A., Trotti, D., Tromba, C. et al. (1994) Glutamate uptake inhibition by free oxygen radicals in rat cortical astrocytes. J. Neurosci. 14, 2924-2936.
87. Yamagata, K., Andreasson, K.I. Kaufmann, W.E. et al. (1993) Expression of a mitogen-inducible cyclooxygenase in brain: regulation by synaptic activity and glucocorticoids. Neuron 11, 371-386.
88. Zhang, F. and Dryhurst, G. (1994) Effects of 1-cysteine on the oxidative chemistry of dopamine: new reaction pathways of potential relevance to ideopathic Parkinson's disease. J. Med. Chem. 37, 1084-1098.