Primary cerebral tumors: The reality and the molecular bases for future treatments;Tumores cerebrales primarios: Realidad y bases moleculares de futuros tratamientos

Neurologia

Volumn 12, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 185-196

  Rosenfeld, M R ^b   Dalmau, J ^a  

^a MEMORIAL SLOAN KETTERING CANCER CENTER   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANGIOSTATIN; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CAMPTOTHECIN; DNA TOPOISOMERASE INHIBITOR; FUMAGILLOL CHLOROACETYLCARBAMATE; IRINOTECAN; LEFLUNOMIDE; PHENYLBUTYRIC ACID; RETINOIC ACID; SURAMIN; TEMOZOLOMIDE; TOPOTECAN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

BRAIN TUMOR; HUMAN; REVIEW;

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; HUMANS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY;

EID: 0030922557     PISSN: 02134853     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Werner MH, Phuphanich S, Lyman GH. The increasing incidence of malignant gliomas and primary central nervous system lymphoma in the elderly. Cancer 1995; 76: 1.634-1.642.
2. Burger PC, Scheithauer BVV. Tumors of the central nervous system. Washington, DC: Armed Forces Inst Path, 1994.
3. Daumas-Duport C, Scheithauer B, O'Fallon J, Kelly P. Grading of astrocytomas. A simple and reproducible method. Cancer 1988; 62: 2.152-2.165.
4. Dalmau J. Importancia del estudio histológico en el tratamiento de los gliomas astrocitarios malignos. Neurología 1990; 5: 1-3.
5. Bruner JM, Inouye L, Fuller GN, Langford LA. Diagnostic discrepancies and their clinical impact in a neuropathology referral practice. Cancer 1997; 79: 796-803.
6. Walker MD, Green SB, Byar DP, Alexander E, Batzdorf U, Brooks WH et al. Randomized comparisons of radiotherapy and nitrosoureas for the treatment of malignant glioma after surgery. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 1.323-1.329.
7. Shapiro WR, Green SB, Burger PC, Mahaley MS, Selker RG, VanGilder JC et al. Randomized trial of three chemotherapy regimens and two radiotherapy regimens and two radiotherapy regimens in postoperative treatment of malignant glioma. Brain Tumor Cooperative Group Trial 8001. J Neurosurg 1989; 71: 1-9.
8. Walker MD, Alexander Jr E, Hunt WE. Evaluation of BCNU and/or radiotherapy in the treatment of anaplastic gliomas. A cooperative clinical trial. J Neurosurg 1978; 49: 333-343.
9. Wood JR, Green SB, Shapiro WR. The prognostic importance of tumor size in malignant gliomas: a computed tomographic scan study by the Brain Tumor Cooperative Group. J Clin Oncol 1988; 6: 338-343.
10. Chandler KL, Prados MD, Malec M, Wilson CB. Long-term survival in patients with glioblastoma multiforme. Neurosurgery 1993; 32: 716-720.
11. Phuphanich S, Ferrall S, Greenberg H. Long-term survival in malignant glioma. Prognostic factors. J Fla Med Asso 1993; 80: 181-184.
12. Netsky M, August B, Fowler W. The longevity of patients with glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurosurg 1950; 7: 261-269.
13. Nelson DF, Nelson JS, Davis DR, Chang CH, Griffin TW. Survival and prognosis of patients with astrocytoma with atypical or anaplastic features. J Neuro-oncol 1985; 3: 99-103.
14. Burger PC, Vogel FS, Green SB, Strike TA. Glioblastoma multiforme and anaplastic astrocytoma. Pathologic criteria and prognostic implications. Cancer 1985; 56: 1.106-1.111.
15. Morita M, Rosenblum MK, Bilsky MH, Fraser RAR, Rosenfeld MR. Long-term survivors of glioblastoma multiforme: clinical and molecular characteristics. J Neurooncol 1996; 27: 259-266.
16. Salford LG, Brun A, Nirfalk S. Ten-year survival among patients with supratentorial astrocytomas grade III and IV. J Neurosurg 1988; 69: 506-509.
17. Vertosick FT Jr, Selker RG. Long-term survival after the diagnosis of malignant glioma: a series of 22 patients surviving more than 4 years after diagnosis. Surg Neurol 1992; 38: 359-363.
18. Delattre J-Y, Posner JB. Neurological complications of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. En: Aminoff MJ, editor. Neurology and general medicine. Nueva York: Churchill Livingstone, 1989; 365-387.
19. Kepes JJ. Large focal tumor-like demyelinating lesions of the brain: intermediate entity between multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis? A study of 31 patients. Ann Neurol 1993; 33: 18-27.
20. Tampieri D, Moumdjian R, Melanson D, Ethier R. Intracerebral gangliogliomas in patients with partial complex seizures: CT and MR imaging findings. Am J Neuroradiol 1991; 12: 749-755.
21. Castillo M, Davis PC, Takei Y, Hoffman JC Jr. Intracranial ganglioglioma: MR, CT, and clinical findings in 18 patients. Am J Roentgenol 1990; 154: 607-612.
22. Lipper MH, Eberhard DA, Phillips CD, Vezina LG, Cail WS. Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, a distinctive astroglial tumor: neuroradiologic and pathologic features. Am J Neuroradiol 1993; 14: 1.397-1.404.
23. Allegranza A, Ferraresi S, Bruzzone M, Giombini S. Cerebromeningeal pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma. Report on four cases: clinical, radiologic and pathological features. (Including a case with malignant evolution). Neurosurg Rev 1991; 14: 43-49.
24. Chang KH, Han MH, Kim DG, Chi JG, Suh DC, Kim SJ et al. MR appearance of central neurocytoma. Acta Radiologica 1993; 34: 520-526.
25. Kim DG, Chi JG, Park SH, Chang KH, Lee SH, Jung HW et al. Intraventricular neurocytoma: clinicopathological analysis of seven cases. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 759-765.
26. Goergen SK, Gonzales MF, McLean CA. Interventricular neurocytoma: radiologic features and review of the literature. Radiology 1992; 182: 787-792.
27. Peterson K, Rosenblum MK, Powers JM, Alvord E, Walker RW, Posner JB. Effect of brain irradiation on demyelinating lesions. Neurology 1993; 42: 2.105-2.112.
28. Cairncross G, Macdonald DR, Ludwin S, Lee D, Cascino T, Buckner J et al. Chemotherapy for anaplastic oligodendroglioma. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12: 2.013-2.021.
29. Lang FF, Miller DC, Koslow M, Newcobm EW. Pathways leading to glioblastoma multiforme: A molecular analysis of genetic alterations in 65 astrocytic tumors. J Neurosurg 1994; 81: 427-436.
30. Agosti RM, Leuthold M, Gullick WJ, Yasargil MG, Wiestler OD. Expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor in astrocytic tumours is specifically associated with glioblastoma multiforme. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 1992; 420: 321-325.
31. Von Deimling A, Von Ammon K, Schoenfeld D, Wiestler OD, Seizinger BR, Louis DN. Subsets of glioblastoma multiforme defined by molecular genetic analysis. Brain Pathol 1993; 3: 19-26.
32. Weinberg RA. Tumor suppressor genes. Science 1991; 254: 1.138-1.146.
33. Hunter T. Cooperation between oncogenes. Cell 1991; 64: 249-270.
34. Li FP, Fraumeni JF. Soft-tissue sarcomas, breast cancer, and other neoplasms: a familial syndrome? Ann Neurol 1969; 71: 747-752.
35. Goldgar DE, Green P, Parry DM, Mulvihill JJ. Multipoint linkage analysis in neurofibromatosis type I: an international collaboration. Am J Hum Genet 1989; 44: 6-12.
36. Viskochil D, Buchberg AM, Xu G, Cawthon RM, Stevens J, Wolff RK et al. Deletions and a translocation interrupt a cloned gene at the neurofibromatosis type 1 locus. Cell 1990; 62: 187-192.
37. Wallace MR, Marchuk DA, Andersen LB, Letcher R, Odeh HM, Saulino AM et al. Type 1 neurofibromatosis gene: identification of a large transcript disrupted in three NF1 patients. Science 1990; 249: 181-186.
38. Varmus HE. The molecular genetics of cellular oncogenes. Annu Rev Genet 1984; 18: 553-612.
39. Knudson AG, Jr. Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1971; 68: 820-823.
40. Friend SH, Horowitz JM, Gerber MR, Wang XF, Bogenmann E, Li FP et al. Deletions of a DNA sequence in retinoblastomas and mesenchymal tumors: organization of the sequence and its encoded protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1987; 84: 9.059-9.063.
41. Hartwell LH, Weinert TA. Checkpoints: controls that ensure the order of cell cycle events. Science 1989; 246: 629-634.
42. Murray AW, Kirschner MW. Dominoes and clocks: the union of two views of the cell cycle. Science 1989; 246: 614-621.
43. Hartwell LH, Culotti J, Pringle JR, Reid BJ. Genetic control of the cell division cycle in yeast. Science 1974; 183: 46-51.
44. Evans T, Rosenthal ET, Youngblom J, Distel D, Hunt T. Cyclin: a protein specified by maternal mRNA in sea urchin eggs that is destroyed at each cleavage division. Cell 1983; 33: 389-396.
45. Harbour JW, Lai SL, Whang-Peng J, Gazdar AF, Minna JD, Kaye FJ. Abnormalities in structure and expression of the human retinoblastoma gene in SCLC. Science 1988; 241: 353-357.
46. Lee EY, To H, Shew JY, Bookstein R, Scully P, Lee WH. Inactivation of the retinoblastoma susceptibility gene in human breast cancers. Science 1988; 241: 218-221.
47. Henson JW, Schnitker BL, Correa KM, Von Deimling A, Fassbinder F, Xu HJ et al. The retinoblastoma gene is involded in malignant progression of astrocytomas. Ann Neurol 1994; 36: 714-721.
48. Whyte P, Buchkovich KJ, Horowitz JM, Friend SH, Raybuck M, Weinberg RA et al. Association between an oncogene and an anti-oncogene: the adenovirus E1A proteins bind to the retinoblastoma gene product. Nature 1988; 334: 124-129.
49. Buchkovich K, Duffy LA, Harlow E. The retinoblastoma protein is phosphorylated during specific phases of the cell cycle. Cell 1989; 58: 1.097-1.105.
50. Lu X, Lane DP. Differential induction of transcriptionally active p53 following UV or ionizing radiation: defects in chromosome instability syndromes? Cell 1993; 75: 765-778.
51. Lane DP. Cancer. p53, guardian of the genome. Nature 1992; 358: 15-16.
52. Hollstein M, Sidransky D, Vogelstein B, Harris CC. p53 mutations in human cancers. Science 1991; 253: 49-53.
53. Frankel RH, Bayona W, Koslow M, Newcomb EW. p53 mutations in human malignant gliomas: comparison of loss of heterozygosity with mutation frequency. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 1.427-1.433.
54. Von Deimling A, Eibl RH, Ohgaki H, Louis DN, Von Ammon K, Petersen I et al. p53 mutations are associated with 17p allelic loss in grade II and grade III astrocytoma. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 2.987-2.990.
55. Sidransky D, Mikkelsen T, Schwechheimer K, Rosenblum ML, Cavanee W, Vogelstein B. Clonal expansion of p53 mutant cells is associated with brain tumour progression. Nature 1992; 355: 846-847.
56. Levine AJ, Momand J, Finlay C. The p53 tumour suppressor gene. Nature 1991; 351: 453-456.
57. Rasheed BK, McLendon RE, Herndon JE, Friedman HS, Friedman AH, Bigner DD et al. Alterations of the Tp53 gene in human gliomas. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 1.324-1.330.
58. Litofsky NS, Hinton D, Raffel C. The lack of a role for p53 in astrocytomas in pediatric patients. Neurosurgery 1994; 34: 967-972.
59. Garber JE, Burke EM, Lavally BL, Billett AL, Sallan SE, Scott RM et al. Choroid plexus tumors in the breast cancer-sarcoma syndrome. Cancer 1990; 66: 2.658-2.660.
60. Cho Y, Gorina S, Jeffrey PD, Pavletich NP. Crystal structure of a p53 tumor suppressor-DNA complex: understanding tumorigenic mutations. Science 1994; 265: 346-355.
61. Kessis TD, Slebos RJ, Nelson WG, Kastan MB, Plunkett BS, Han SM et al. Human papillomavirus 16 E6 expression disrupts the p53-mediated cellular response to DNA damage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993; 90: 3.988-3.992.
62. Levine AJ, Momand J. Tumor suppressor genes: the p53 and retinoblastoma sensitivity genes and gene products. Biochim Biophys Acta 1990; 1032: 119-136.
63. Wang XW, Forrester K, Yeh H, Feitelson MA, Gu JR, Harris CC. Hepatitis B virus X protein inhibits p53 sequence-specific DNA binding, transcriptional activity, and association with transcription factor ERCC3. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 2.230-2.234.
64. Zhang Q, Gutsch D, Kenney S. Functional and physical interaction between p53 and BZLF1: implications for Epstein-Barr virus latency. Mol Cell Biol 1994; 14: 1.929-1.938.
65. Chozick BS, Pezzullo JC, Epstein MH, Finch PW. Prognostic implications of p53 overexpression in supratentorial astrocytic tumors. Neurosurgery 1994; 35: 831-838.
66. Iuzzolino P, Ghimenton C, Nicolato A, Giorgiutti F, Fina P, Doglione C et al. p53 protein in low-grade astrocytomas: a study with long-term follow-up. Br J Cancer 1994; 69: 586-591.
67. Kraus JA, Bolln C, Wolf HK, Neumann J, Kindermann D, Fimmers R et al. TP53 alterations and clinical outcome in low grade astrocytomas. Genes Chrom Cancer 1994; 10: 143-149.
68. Banerjee A, Xu HJ, Hu SX, Araujo D, Takahashi R, Stanbridge EJ et al. Changes in growth and tumorigenicity following reconstitution of retinoblastoma gene function in various human cancer cell types by microcell transfer of chromosome 13. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 6.297-6.304.
69. Huang HJ, Yee JK, Shew JY, Chen PL, Bookstein R, Friedman T et al. Suppression of the neoplastic phenotype by replacement of the RB gene in human cancer cells. Science 1988; 242: 1.563-1.566.
70. Baker SJ, Markowitz S, Fearon ER, Willson JKV, Vogelstein B. Suppression of human colorectal carcinoma cell growth by wild-type p53. Science 1900; 249: 912-915.
71. Rosenfeld MR, Meneses P, Dalmau J, Drobnjak M, Cordon-Cardo C, Kaplitt MG. Gene transfer of wild-type p53 results in restoration of tumor-suppressor function in a medulloblastoma cell line. Neurology 1995; 45: 1.533-1.539.
72. Lowe SW, Bodis S, McClatchey A, Remington L, Ruley HE, Fisher DE et al. p53 status and the efficacy of cancer therapy in vivo. Science 1994; 266: 807-810.
73. Roth JA, Nguyen D, Lawrence DD, Kemp BL, Carrasco CH, Person DZ et al. Retrovirus-mediated wild-type p53 gene transfer to tumors of patients with lung cancer. Nature Med 1996; 2: 985-991.
74. Ullrich A, Schlessinger J. Signal transduction by receptors with tyrosine kinase activity. Cell 1990; 61: 203-212.
75. Von Deimling A, Louis DN, Von Ammon K, Petersen I, Hoell T, Chung RY et al. Association of epidermal growth factor receptor gene amplification with loss of chromosome 10 in human glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurosurg 1992; 77: 295-301.
76. Humphrey PA, Gangarosa LM, Wong AJ, Archer GE, Lund-Johansen M, Bjerkvig R et al. Deletion-mutant epidermal growth factor receptor in human gliomas: effects of type II mutation on receptor function. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1991; 178: 1.413-1.420.
77. Libermann TA, Nusbaum HR, Razon N, Kris R, Lax I, Soreq H et al. Amplification, enhanced expression and possible rearrangement of EGF receptor gene in primary human brain tumours of glial origin. Nature 1985; 313: 144-147.
78. Yung WKA, Zhang X, Steck PA, Hung MC. Differential amplification of the TGF-alpha gene in human gliomas. Cancer Commun 1990; 2: 201-206.
79. Ross R, Raines EW, Bowen-Pope DF. The biology of platelet-derived growth factor. Cell 1986; 46: 155-169.
80. Seymour L, Dajee D, Bezwoda WR. Tissue platelet derived-growth factor (PDGF) predicts for shortened survival and treatment failure in advanced breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1993; 26: 247-252.
81. Henriksen R, Funa K, Wilander E, Backstrom T, Ridderheim M, Oberg K. Expression and prognostic significance of platelet-derived growth factor and its receptors in epithelial ovarian neoplasms. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 4.550-4.554.
82. Nister M, Libermann TA, Betsholtz C, Pettersson M, Claesson-Welsh L, Heldin CH et al. Expression of messenger RNAs for platelet-derived growth factor and transforming growth factor-alpha and their receptors in human malignant glioma cell lines. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 3.910-3.918.
83. Hermanson M, Funa K, Hartman M, Claesson-Welsh L, Heldin CH, Westermark B et al. Platelet-derived growth factor and its receptors in human glioma tissue: expression of messenger RNA and protein suggests the presence of autocrine and paracrine loops. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 3.213-3.219.
84. Zankl H, Zang KD. Cytological and cytogenetical studies on brain tumors. 4. Identification of the missing C chromosome in human meningiomas as no. 22 by fluorescence technique. Humangenetik 1972; 14: 167-169.
85. Maxwell M, Galanopoulos T, Hedley-Whyte ET, Black PM, Antoniades HN. Human meningiomas co-express platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and PDGF-receptor genes and their protein products. Int J Cancer 1990; 46: 16-21.
86. Brem S, Cotran R, Folkman J. Tumor angiogenesis: a quantitative method for histologic grading. J Natl Cancer Inst 1972; 48: 347-356.
87. Maxwell M, Naber SP, Wolfe HJ, Hedley-Whyte ET, Galanopoulos T, Neville-Golden J et al. Expression of angiogenic growth factor genes in primary human astrocytomas may contribute to their growth and progression. Cancer Res 1991; 51: 1.345-1.351.
88. Paulus W, Grothe C, Sensenbrenner M, Janet T, Baur I, Graf M et al. Localization of basic fibroblast growth factor, a mitogen and angiogenic factor, in human brain tumors. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1990; 79: 418-423.
89. Plate KH, Breier G, Weich HA, Risau W. Vascular endothelial growth factor is a potential tumour angiogenesis factor in human gliomas in vivo. Nature 1992; 359: 845-848.
90. Shweiki D, Itin A, Soffer D, Keshet E. Vascular endothelial growth factor induced by hypoxia may mediate hypoxia-initiated angiogenesis. Nature 1992; 359: 843-845.
91. Dotto GP, Moellmann G, Ghosh S, Edwards M, Halaban R. Transformation of murine melanocytes by basic fibroblast growth factor cDNA and oncogenes and selective suppression of the transformed phenotype in a reconstituted cutaneous environment. J Cell Biol 1989; 109: 3.115-3.128.
92. Takahashi JA, Fukumoto M, Igarashi K, Oda Y, Kikuchi H, Hatanaka M. Correlation of basic fibroblast growth factor expression levels with the degree of malignancy and vascularity in human gliomas. J Neurosurg 1992; 76: 792-798.
93. Redekop GJ, Naus CC. Transfection with bFGF sense and antisense cDNA resulting in modification of malignant glioma growth. J Neurosurg 1995; 82: 83-90.
94. Haimovitz-Friedman A, Vlodavsky I, Chaudhuri A, Whitte L, Fuks Z. Autocrine effects of fibroblast growth factor in repair of radiation damage in endothelial cells. Cancer Res 1991; 51: 2.552-2.558.
95. Roberts JJ, Thomson AJ. The mechanism of action of antitumor platinum compounds. Prog Nucleic Acid Res Mol Biol 1979; 22: 71-133.
96. Wang JC. DNA topoisomerases. Annual Review of Biochemistry 1985; 54: 665-697.
97. Blackburn EH. Structure and function of telomeres. Nature 1991; 350: 569-573.
98. Oldfield EH, Ram Z, Culver KW, Blaese RM, DeVroom HL. Gene therapy for the treatment of brain tumors using intra-tumoral transduction with the thymidine kinase gene and intravenous ganciclovir. Hum Gene Ther 1993; 4: 39-69.
99. Anderson WF. Gene therapy for cancer. Hum Gene Ther 1994; 5: 1-2.
100. Yannelli JR, Hyatt C, McConnell S, Hines K, Jacknin L, Parker L et al. Growth of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes from human solid cancers: summary of a 5-year experience. Int J Cancer 1996; 65: 413-421.
101. Hwu P, Rosenberg SA. The use of gene-modified tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes for cancer therapy. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994; 716: 188-197.
102. Smith MA, Parkinson DR, Cheson BD, Friedman MA. Retinoids in cancer therapy. J Clin Oncol 1992; 10: 839-864.
103. Ram Z, Samid D, Walbridge S, Oshiro EM, Viola JJ, Tao-Cheng JH et al. Growth inhibition, tumor maturation, and extended survival in experimental brain tumors in rats treated with phenylacetate. Cancer Res 1994; 54: 2.923-2.927.
104. Samid D, Shack S, Sherman LT. Phenylacetate: a novel nontoxic inducer of tumor cell differentiation. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 1.988-1.992.
105. O'Reilly MS, Holmgren L, Shing Y, Chen C, Rosenthal RA, Cao Y et al. Angiostatin: a circulating endothelial cell inhibitor that suppresses angiogenesis and tumor growth. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quant Biol 1994; 59: 471-482.
106. Devineni D, Klein-Szanto A, Gallo JM. Uptake of temozolomide in a rat glioma model in the presence and absence of the angiogenesis inhibitor TNP-470. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 1.983-1.987.
107. Friedman HS, Dolan ME, Pegg AE, Marcelli S, Keir S, Catino JJ et al. Activity of temozolomide in the treatment of central nervous system tumor xenografts. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 2.853-2.857.
108. D'Amato RJ, Loughnan MS, Flynn E, Folkman J. Thalidomide is an inhibitor of angiogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 4.082-4.085.
109. Stein CA. Suramin: a novel antineoplastic agent with multiple potential mechanisms of action. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 2.239-2.248.
110. Pesenti E, Sola F, Mongelli N, Grandi M, Spreafico F. Suramin prevents neovascularisation and tumour growth through blocking of basic fibroblast growth factor activity. Br J Cancer 1992; 66: 367-372.
111. Isobe N, Uozumi T, Kurisu K, Kawamoto K. Antitumor effect of TNP-470 on glial tumors transplanted in rats. Anticancer Res 1996; 16: 71-76.
112. Yazaki T, Takamiya Y, Costello PC, Mineta T, Menon AG, Rabkin SD et al. Inhibition of angiogenesis and growth of human non-malignant and malignant meningiomas by TNP-470. J Neurol-oncol 1995; 23: 23-29.
113. Taki T, Ohnishi T, Arita N, Hiraga S, Saitoh Y, Izumoto S et al. Anti-proliferative effects of TNP-470 on human malignant glioma in vivo: potent inhibition of tumor angiogenesis. J Neuro-oncol 1994; 19: 251-258.
114. Houghton PJ, Cheshire PJ, Hallman JD II, Lutz L, Friedman HS, Danks MK et al. Efficacy of topoisomerase I inhibitors, topotecan and irinotecan, administered at low dose levels in protracted schedules to mice bearing xenografts of human tumors. Cancer Chemo Pharmacol 1995; 36: 393-403.
115. Blaney SM, Phillips PC, Packer RJ, Heideman RL, Berg SL, Adamson PC et al. Phase II evaluation of topotecan for pediatric central nervous system tumors. Cancer 1996; 78: 527-531.