Sowing the seeds of failure: Early portuguese cotton cultivation in angola and mozambique, 1820-1926

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 1991, Pages 43-70

  Pitcher, M Anne ^a  

^a Colgate University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COTTON PRODUCTION; ESTADO NOVO; HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT; POLICY REGIME; PORTUGUESE GROWERS;

ANGOLA; MOZAMBIQUE;

EID: 0026341346     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: 14653893     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03057079108708266     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Henrique de Paiva Couceiro, Angola (Dous Annos de Governo Junho 1907-Junho 1909)(Lisboa: Editora A Nacional, 1910), p. 336.
2. The year was 1971. See Instituto Nacional de Estatistica, Estatistica Industrial, 1971.
3. N.S. Bravo, A cultura algodoeira na economia no norte de Mocambique (Lisboa: Junta de Investigates do Ultramar, 1963), p. 60 and M.G. Beatriz, ‘Materias Primas da Colonia 0 Algodao’, Mozambique Documentário Trimestral. 5 (1936), pp. 8-9.
4. M. G. Beatriz, ‘A cultura do algodao em Angola: Regioes algodoeiras de Catete e Cassoneca’, Apenso ao Boletim Oficial do Governador-Geral da Provincia de Angola (BOGPA), Ano 1, no. 7 (Agosto 1918), p. 341.
5. Augusto Ribeiro, ‘Revista Econ6mica Colonial’, Portugal em Africa, Vol. 12, no. 135 (Marco 1905), pp. 208-212. Portaria regia of 5 de Janeiro de 1855 implemented the terms of an earlier Decree of 9 de Dezembro de 1854, (see Carlos J. Fortuna, ‘Threading Through’, p. 138).
6. Because of the instability of the escudo, sterling is used to express cotton prices throughout this paper. Prices quoted are real prices; 1867 is the base year. See Appendix B.
7. This was embodied in a decree of 4 Dez. 1861 see A. Ribeiro ‘Revista’, p. 213 and Manuel Julio de Mendonca Torres, Mocamedes, Vol. II (Lisboa: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1974) pp. 382-383.
8. A. Ribeiro, ‘Revista’, p. 213.
9. M.G. Beatriz, BOGPA, p. 342.
10. Julio Augusto Pires, ‘Cultura do Algodao em Mocambique: Sua Hist6ria’, Mocambique-Documentário Trimestral, Ano 9, no. 37 (1944), p. 94. An arroba is a measure of weight equal to about 15 kilograms.
11. M. J. Torres, Mocamedes (Lisboa: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1950, rep. 1974), Vol. I.
12. See Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports for Mozambique, 1894-1899 and Leroy Vail and Landeg White, Colonialism and Capitalism in Mozambique (London: Heinemann, 1980).
13. H. P. Taveira, ‘A Cultura’, p. 2 and M.G. Beatriz, BOGPA, pp. 348-349.
14. Annaes do Conselho Ultramarino, Parte Näo Official, Anno de 1863, Serie IV (Setembro), p. 88.
15. J.A. Pires, ‘Cultura’, p. 90.
16. Mozambique, Boletim Official do Governo Geral da Provincia de Mocambique (Sabado 19 de Abril, 1862), p. 61.
17. J. A. Pires, ‘Cultura’, p. 95. The term colonos in Angola usually refers to Portuguese settlers; in Mozambique, it refers to Africans who give part of their crop as payment of rent to a Portuguese or Creole landowner.
18. M.G.Beatriz, BOGPA, p. 341, fn.
19. Carta do Dr. Weltwisch a W.L. Howarth, em 1861’, Arquivo das Col, Volume 1 (Julho-Dez. 1917), p. 45.
20. Joseph Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade. 1730-1830 (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1988), p. 113.
21. Carta do Dr. Weltwisch, p. 45. Clochas and tangas are lengths of cloth often used as currency in Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries.
22. African Economic History (London: James Currey, 1987), p. 139.
23. Annaes do Conselho Ultramarino, Parte Nao Official, Anno de 1863, Serie IV (Setembro), p. 88.
24. Angola, Relatrio do Governador General da Provincia de Angola Sebastiäo Lopes de Calheiros e Menezes, Anno 1861. (Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional, 1867), p. 67.
25. Patrick Harries, ‘Slavery, Social Incorporation and Surplus Extraction; The Nature of Free and Unfree Labour in South-east Africa’, Journal of African History, 22 (1981), p. 323.
26. W. Y. Campbell, (ed.), Travellers’ Records of Portuguese Nyasaland, (London: King, Sell and Railton, Ltd. 1929).
27. L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism, p. 18 and pp. 31-32 and Patrick Harries, ‘Slavery, Social Incorporation’, p. 317.
28. See Angola, Relatório, p. 67.
29. W. G. Clarence-Smith, ‘The Myth of Uneconomic Imperialism’, p. 176.
30. Sherilynn Young, ‘Fertility and Famine: Women's Agricultural History in Southern Mozambique’, in Robin Palmer and Neil Parsons, (eds.), The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1977), p. 73.
31. Jill R. Dias, ‘Famine and Disease in the History of Angola, c. 1830-1930’, Journal of African History, 22 (1981), pp. 363-365.
32. L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism, p. 31 give some of the prices offered for engag6 labour in the 1850s.
33. W.G. Clarence-Smith, Slaves, Peasants and Capitalists in Southern Angola, p. 63.
34. Maria Filomena Mónica, Artesāose Operários: Indústrie Capitalismo, e Classe Operária em Portugal (1870-1934) (Lisboa: Instituto de Ciencias Sociais, 1986), 156.
35. M. F. Mónica, Artesãos, pp. 160-162.
36. Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Questoes Colónias e Económicas: Conclusoes e Pareceres. 1913-1919 (Lisboa: Tip. da Cooperativa Militar, 1920), p. 145.
37. Portugal em Africa, Vol. 12, no. 136 (Abril 1905), p. 240.
38. H. P. Taveira, ‘nas Colónias Portuguesas’, pp. 5-6.
39. H. P. Taveira, ‘nas Colónias Portuguesas’, pp. 5-7.
40. H.P. Taveira, ‘Cultura de Algodäo Colonial’, Relatorio sobre a exposicão de algodão realisada em Londres em Junho de 1905, p. 11.
41. Mocambique, Relatóriose Informagoes, Anexo ao Boletim Official, anno de 1908 (Lourenco Marques: Imprensa Nacional), p. 142.
42. Nomi is the term applied to organized groups of Sena adolescents who hired themselves out for wage labour in the Zambezia region.
43. Relatórios, p. 171.
44. Companhia de Moçambique, ‘Memoria Acerca de Algodão e Borracha’, Exposição da Sociedade da Geografia de Lisboa (Lisboa: Typographia Adolpho de Mendonça, 1906), p. 11; Moçambique, Relatórios, p. 53.
45. H.P. Taveira, ‘nas Colonias Portuguesas’, p. 8.
46. See Moçambique, Relatórios.
47. M.F. Monica, Artesaos, pp. 161-162.
48. L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism, p. 134.
49. Moçambique, Relatórios, p. 141.
50. Moçambique, Relatórios, p. 39.
51. L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism, pp. 67, 137.
52. Co. de Moçambique, ‘Memoria’, p. 15.
53. L. Vail, ‘Mozambique's Chartered Companies’, p. 396.
54. Co. de Moçambique ‘Memoria’, p. 18 (see fn.).
55. Couceiro, Dous Annos, p. 337.
56. Beatriz, BOGPA, p. 345.
57. Beatriz, BOGPA, p. 351.
58. Portugal, Colónia de Moçambique, Relatório do Chefe dos Serviços de Agricultura, 1940-44, II paite (Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional de Moçambique, 1946), p. 135.
59. Colónia de Moçambique, Direcção dos Serviços de Agricultura, Algodão (Lourenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1934), p. 10.
60. From Tropical Agriculture, VI, 2 (1929), p. 266 quoted in Empire Cotton Growing Review, VI, 1 (January 1929), p. 52.
61. C. Carlyle-Gall, ed. East African Manual (London: Mining and Industrial Publications of Africa, Ltd. 1929), p. 866.
62. Armando Castro, A Economia Portuguesa do Seculo XX (1900-1925) (Lisboa: Edições 70, 1973), p. 118.
63. DSA, Algodao, p. 6.
64. See Portugal, Ministerio das Colónias, Anuário Colonial, 1927-29, p. 162.
65. M.G. Beatriz, ‘Materias Primas’, pp. 18-19; Portugal, Colónia de Moçambique, Relatório do Chefe, p. 136.
66. M.G. Beatriz, BOGPA (1918), pp. 341-342.
67. L.Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism, p. 273.
68. Beatriz, BOGPA, p. 346.
69. Great Britain, Board of Trade, Report on Economic Conditions in Portuguese East Africa (London: HMSO, 1923 1933).
70. ‘Report of the Tanganyika Territory’ quoted in the Empire Cotton Growing Review, 1, 1 (January 1924), p. 33.
71. W.G. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire 1825-1975. A Study in Economic Imperialism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), p. 124.
72. Empire Cotton Growing Review, 1, 1 (January 1924), p. 33.
73. See the Empire Cotton Growing Review, 1, 1 (January 1924) for information on the formation of the Empire Cotton Growing Association and subsequent issues on colonial cotton studies.
74. Alan K. Smith, ‘Antonio Salazar and the Reversal of Portuguese Colonial Policy’, Journal of African History, XV, no. 4 (1974), pp. 653-667.
75. Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, Questões Colónias, p. 147.
76. W. G. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, pp. 116-145.
77. A. H. de Oliveira Marques, A Primeira República (Lisboa: Livros Horizonte, 1971; 2nd ed. 1975), p. 131.
78. W. G. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, p. 117.
79. A. Castro, A Economia, p. 61.
80. W. G. Clarence-Smith, The Third Portuguese Empire, p. 118.
81. See M. Anne Pitcher, A Trial of Interests: the Estado Novo, the Portuguese Textile Industry and Colonial Cotton Production under Salazar (Oxford, forthcoming).