Beyond the frontier-region dichotomy

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 65, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 401-429

  Wrobel, David M ^a  

^a WIDENER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FRONTIER-REGION DICHOTOMY; HISTORICAL THEORY; REGIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS; SENSE OF PLACE; THEORETICAL STUDY;

EID: 0030440456     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3640022     Document Type: Article

References (175)

1. Allan Bogue, "Frederick Jackson Turner Reconsidered" (Paper delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 17, 1993). Bogue's biography of Turner is forthcoming.
2. A good illustration of this dichotomy is a recent collection of essays edited by Gene Gressley endued Old West/New West: Quo Vadis? (Worland, Wyo., 1994). Whether intentionally or not, the volume seems to pit three "old" historians against three "new" historians.
3. Among the most notable examples of the earlier media coverage of the debate are, in chronological order, T. R. Reid, "Shootout in Academia over History of U.S. West," Washington Post, Oct. 10, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Ideas and Trends: Among Historians the Old Frontier Is Turning Nastier with Each Revision," New York Times, Dec. 17, 1989, E, 4-6; Miriam Horn, "How the West Was Really Won," U.S. News and World Report (May 21, 1990), 56-65; Larry McMurtry, "Westward Ho Hum: What the New Historians Have Done to the Old West," New Republic (Oct 9, 1990), 32-38; "Rewriting the West," USA Today (Dec. 7, 1990), D, 1-2.
4. Among the most notable examples of the earlier media coverage of the debate are, in chronological order, T. R. Reid, "Shootout in Academia over History of U.S. West," Washington Post, Oct. 10, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Ideas and Trends: Among Historians the Old Frontier Is Turning Nastier with Each Revision," New York Times, Dec. 17, 1989, E, 4-6; Miriam Horn, "How the West Was Really Won," U.S. News and World Report (May 21, 1990), 56-65; Larry McMurtry, "Westward Ho Hum: What the New Historians Have Done to the Old West," New Republic (Oct 9, 1990), 32-38; "Rewriting the West," USA Today (Dec. 7, 1990), D, 1-2.
5. Among the most notable examples of the earlier media coverage of the debate are, in chronological order, T. R. Reid, "Shootout in Academia over History of U.S. West," Washington Post, Oct. 10, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Ideas and Trends: Among Historians the Old Frontier Is Turning Nastier with Each Revision," New York Times, Dec. 17, 1989, E, 4-6; Miriam Horn, "How the West Was Really Won," U.S. News and World Report (May 21, 1990), 56-65; Larry McMurtry, "Westward Ho Hum: What the New Historians Have Done to the Old West," New Republic (Oct 9, 1990), 32-38; "Rewriting the West," USA Today (Dec. 7, 1990), D, 1-2.
6. Among the most notable examples of the earlier media coverage of the debate are, in chronological order, T. R. Reid, "Shootout in Academia over History of U.S. West," Washington Post, Oct. 10, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Ideas and Trends: Among Historians the Old Frontier Is Turning Nastier with Each Revision," New York Times, Dec. 17, 1989, E, 4-6; Miriam Horn, "How the West Was Really Won," U.S. News and World Report (May 21, 1990), 56-65; Larry McMurtry, "Westward Ho Hum: What the New Historians Have Done to the Old West," New Republic (Oct 9, 1990), 32-38; "Rewriting the West," USA Today (Dec. 7, 1990), D, 1-2.
7. Among the most notable examples of the earlier media coverage of the debate are, in chronological order, T. R. Reid, "Shootout in Academia over History of U.S. West," Washington Post, Oct. 10, 1989; Richard Bernstein, "Ideas and Trends: Among Historians the Old Frontier Is Turning Nastier with Each Revision," New York Times, Dec. 17, 1989, E, 4-6; Miriam Horn, "How the West Was Really Won," U.S. News and World Report (May 21, 1990), 56-65; Larry McMurtry, "Westward Ho Hum: What the New Historians Have Done to the Old West," New Republic (Oct 9, 1990), 32-38; "Rewriting the West," USA Today (Dec. 7, 1990), D, 1-2.
8. The quotation is from Janny Scott's insightful summary of the debate, "New Battleground of the Old West: Academia," Los Angeles Times, May 18, 1993, A, 5. Patricia Nelson Limerick used the "showdown" motif to characterize perceptions of the debates in the field in her essay, The Trail to Santa Fe: The Unleashing of the Western Public Intellectual," in Patricia Nelson Limerick, Clyde Milner II, and Charles Rankin, eds., Trails: Toward a New Western History (Lawrence, 1991), 59-77. Limerick does distinguish in this essay between the Old Western History and the "Restored Old Western History," which she calls "a product of the diligent labors of Ray Allen Billington and his allies in the mid-twentieth century" (p. 63).
9. The quotation is from Janny Scott's insightful summary of the debate, "New Battleground of the Old West: Academia," Los Angeles Times, May 18, 1993, A, 5. Patricia Nelson Limerick used the "showdown" motif to characterize perceptions of the debates in the field in her essay, The Trail to Santa Fe: The Unleashing of the Western Public Intellectual," in Patricia Nelson Limerick, Clyde Milner II, and Charles Rankin, eds., Trails: Toward a New Western History (Lawrence, 1991), 59-77. Limerick does distinguish in this essay between the Old Western History and the "Restored Old Western History," which she calls "a product of the diligent labors of Ray Allen Billington and his allies in the mid-twentieth century" (p. 63).
10. The quotation is from Janny Scott's insightful summary of the debate, "New Battleground of the Old West: Academia," Los Angeles Times, May 18, 1993, A, 5. Patricia Nelson Limerick used the "showdown" motif to characterize perceptions of the debates in the field in her essay, The Trail to Santa Fe: The Unleashing of the Western Public Intellectual," in Patricia Nelson Limerick, Clyde Milner II, and Charles Rankin, eds., Trails: Toward a New Western History (Lawrence, 1991), 59-77. Limerick does distinguish in this essay between the Old Western History and the "Restored Old Western History," which she calls "a product of the diligent labors of Ray Allen Billington and his allies in the mid-twentieth century" (p. 63).
11. For a good summary of the polemical exchanges among academics, see Dick Kreck, "Showdown in the New West," Denver Post Magazine (March 21, 1993), 6-8. William G. Robbins also provides thorough and insightful coverage of the debate in his "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 182-214. I have chosen to eschew direct discussion of the most excessively polemical discussions of recent years because nothing constructive is likely to come from opening up old wounds.
12. For a good summary of the polemical exchanges among academics, see Dick Kreck, "Showdown in the New West," Denver Post Magazine (March 21, 1993), 6-8. William G. Robbins also provides thorough and insightful coverage of the debate in his "Laying Siege to Western History: The Emergence of New Paradigms," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 182-214. I have chosen to eschew direct discussion of the most excessively polemical discussions of recent years because nothing constructive is likely to come from opening up old wounds.
13. The subject of purposeful attacks since the 1930s, Turner's 1893 essay The Significance of the Frontier in American History," is still a pervasive presence in the work of revisionist historians, if only as a foil for the construction of the alternative regional paradigm. Furthermore, as Patricia Limerick notes in Turnerians All: The Dream of a Helpful History in an Intelligible World," American Historical Review, C (1995), 697-716, "this campaign to re-energize western history turned out to yield a wonderfully ironic side effect. The New Western History's campaign to declare Turner irrelevant revitalized Turner's reputation" (p. 698).
14. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
15. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
16. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
17. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
18. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
19. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
20. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
21. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
22. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
23. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
24. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
25. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
26. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
27. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
28. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
29. Martin Ridge, in The American West: From Frontier to Region," New Mexico Historical Review, LXIV (1989), 125-141, provides a useful introduction to the transition from a Turnerian, process-centered history of the frontier/West to more recent studies of the West as a regional entity. See Ridge's essay, "Frederick Jackson Turner and His Ghost," in Ridge, Elizabeth A. H.John, Alvin M. Josephy, Jr., Howard Lamar, George Miles, and Kevin Starr, Writing the History of the American West (Worcester, Mass., 1991), 65-76, for an interesting discussion of the difficult matter of exorcising Turner's ghost New Western Historian Donald Worster helps set the parameters for a reevaluation of the West as a region in "New West, True West: Interpreting the Region's History," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 141-156. Also notable in this context is Worster's searing attack on mythic representations of the West, "Beyond the Agrarian Myth," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 3-25. No footnote on the frontier/region debate would be complete without mention of Limerick's landmark work, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York, 1987). In the book's introductory section, "Closing the Frontier and Opening Western History," 17-32, Limerick emphasizes a gulf separating the notion of frontier process from that of the West as a defined region. Richard White's textbook, "It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own": A New History of the American West (Norman, Okla., 1991), also warrants special attention for the author's determination to escape the frontier straightjacket by leaving Frederick Jackson Turner's name and the word "frontier" out of the book completely. A notable recent revisionist work with a strong regional focus is William G. Robbins, Colony and Empire: The Capitalist Transformation of the American West (Lawrence, 1994). See also Robbins's insightful historiographical essay, "Western History: A Dialectic on the Modern Condition," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 429-449 ; and Michael P. Malone's "Beyond the Last Frontier: Toward a New Approach to Western American History," Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 409-427. For responses to the revisionists, see the symposium, The New Western History," featuring Gerald Nash, Martin Ridge, William Goetzmann, and Gerald Thompson, in Continuity: A Journal of History, XVII (1993), 1-32; Gerald Thompson, "The New Western History: A Critical Analysis," and Gerald Nash, The Global Context of the New Western Historian," both in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 51-71, and 149-162, respectively. Useful coverage of the historiographical debate over process versus place is also provided in Gerald Thompson, "Frontier West Process or Place," Journal of the Southwest, XXIX (1987), 364-375; Gerald D. Nash, Creating the West: Historical Interpretations, 1890-1990 (Albuquerque, 1991); and Richard Etulain, ed., Writing Western History: Essays on Major Western Historians (Albuquerque, 1991).
30. See Limerick, Legacy of Conquest.
31. Elliott West's label for the New Western History, "A Longer, Grimmer, But More Interesting Story," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 103-111, seems an appropriate one.
32. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
33. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
34. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New
35. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
36. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
37. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
38. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
39. On this point, see recent historiographical essays by Allan G. Bogue, "The Significance of the History of the American West Postscripts and Prospects," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 45-68; and Gerald D. Nash, The Great Adventure: Western History, 1890-1990," ibid., XXII (1991), 5-18. Some of the nuances that separate New Western Historians are briefly explored by Howard N. Rabinowitz in his extended review of William Cronon's Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York, 1991): "The New Western History Goes to Town, or Don't Forget That Your Urban Hamburger Was Once a Rural Cow," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIII (Spring, 1993), 1-4. See also John Mack Faragher's review essays, "The Frontier Trail: Rethinking Turner and Reimagining the West, in American Historical Review, XCVIII (1993), 106-117; and "The Significance of the Frontier in American Historiography," in Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner: "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" and Other Essays (New York, 1994), 225-241. For lively coverage of the nuances separating western revisionists, see Wilbur Jacobs, On Turner's Trail: 100 Years of Writing Western History (Lawrence, 1994), esp. 228-236.
40. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
41. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
42. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
43. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
44. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
45. Earl Pomeroy's pioneering work on the cultural continuities connecting East and West paints the West as a region with markedly less regional distinctiveness than is often claimed for it. See his "Toward a Reorientation of Western History: Continuity and Environment," Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLI (1955), 579-600; and The Pacific Slope: A History of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, and Nevada (New York, 1965). Also notable is Walter Prescott Webb's interesting transition, not from process to place, but from place to process, starting with his regional masterpiece The Great Plains (Boston, 1931) and producing, more than two decades later, The Great Frontier (Boston, 1952). William Cronon, an oft-labeled New Western Historian who is not overly preoccupied with the need to escape Turner's shadow (and who is currently occupying Turner's chair at the University of Wisconsin) also defies being categorized in a dualistic historiographical framework. Cronon's "Revisiting Turner's Vanishing Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XVIII (1987), 157-176 , and "Turner's First Stand: The Significance of Significance in American History," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 73-101, are good indicators of his sophisticated approach to the Turnerian legacy. Etulain's volume is an invaluable source for those exploring the complexities of American western historiography. Also of great importance in this context is Gerald Nash's Creating the West, which presents a generational hypothesis to help explain shifts in historical interpretation. While generational explanations for historiographical shifts are very useful, they often gloss over important differences between individuals of the same generation.
46. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
47. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
48. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
49. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
50. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
51. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
52. Wilbur Jacobs, for example, has written a trilogy of works on Turner: The Historical World of Frederick Jackson Turner (New Haven, 1968), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy: Unpublished Writings in American History (San Marino, Calif., 1965), and, most recently, On Turner's TraiL But included among Jacobs's many other publications are works that because of their focus and tone might be considered decidedly "un-Turnerian." See, for example, Dispossessing the American Indian (1966; reprinted, Norman, 1985); "The Indian and the Frontier in American History - A Need for Revision," Western Historical Quarterly, IV (1973), 43-56; "Native American History: How It Illuminates Our Past," American Historical Review, LXXX (1975), 595-609; "The Great Despoliation: Environmental Themes in American Frontier History," Pacific Historical Review, XLVII (1978), 1-26; and "Francis Parkman - Naturalist - Environmental Savant," ibid., LXI (1992), 341-356.Jacobs is an environmental activist, a vocal defender of Native American civil rights, and an expert on Turner; he clearly defies categorization into the kind of simplistic dualistic framework that has been constructed.
53. Patricia Nelson Limerick, "The Persistence of the Frontier," Harper's, CCLXXXIX (1994), 21-24, extracted from her longer essay "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in James Grossman, ed., The Frontier in American Culture: Essays by Richard White and Patricia Nelson Limerick (Berkeley, 1994). See also Limerick's essay "Turnerians All," which, while still critical, demonstrates a growing empathy for Turner. "Turner," she notes, "embodied the idea of historians as public servants, as scholars whose inquiries into the past could contribute directly and concretely to human well-being in the present" (p. 715). For an earlier example of Limerick's more accommodationist approach to the word "frontier," see "Parts and Whole: Appraising [Western] Regionalism in American History" (Commentary delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 18, 1993). Also fascinating in this context is Kerwin Lee Klein, "Reclaiming the "F" Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, LXV (1996), 179-215.
54. Patricia Nelson Limerick, "The Persistence of the Frontier," Harper's, CCLXXXIX (1994), 21-24, extracted from her longer essay "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in James Grossman, ed., The Frontier in American Culture: Essays by Richard White and Patricia Nelson Limerick (Berkeley, 1994). See also Limerick's essay "Turnerians All," which, while still critical, demonstrates a growing empathy for Turner. "Turner," she notes, "embodied the idea of historians as public servants, as scholars whose inquiries into the past could contribute directly and concretely to human well-being in the present" (p. 715). For an earlier example of Limerick's more accommodationist approach to the word "frontier," see "Parts and Whole: Appraising [Western] Regionalism in American History" (Commentary delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 18, 1993). Also fascinating in this context is Kerwin Lee Klein, "Reclaiming the "F" Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, LXV (1996), 179-215.
55. Patricia Nelson Limerick, "The Persistence of the Frontier," Harper's, CCLXXXIX (1994), 21-24, extracted from her longer essay "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in James Grossman, ed., The Frontier in American Culture: Essays by Richard White and Patricia Nelson Limerick (Berkeley, 1994). See also Limerick's essay "Turnerians All," which, while still critical, demonstrates a growing empathy for Turner. "Turner," she notes, "embodied the idea of historians as public servants, as scholars whose inquiries into the past could contribute directly and concretely to human well-being in the present" (p. 715). For an earlier example of Limerick's more accommodationist approach to the word "frontier," see "Parts and Whole: Appraising [Western] Regionalism in American History" (Commentary delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 18, 1993). Also fascinating in this context is Kerwin Lee Klein, "Reclaiming the "F" Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, LXV (1996), 179-215.
56. Patricia Nelson Limerick, "The Persistence of the Frontier," Harper's, CCLXXXIX (1994), 21-24, extracted from her longer essay "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in James Grossman, ed., The Frontier in American Culture: Essays by Richard White and Patricia Nelson Limerick (Berkeley, 1994). See also Limerick's essay "Turnerians All," which, while still critical, demonstrates a growing empathy for Turner. "Turner," she notes, "embodied the idea of historians as public servants, as scholars whose inquiries into the past could contribute directly and concretely to human well-being in the present" (p. 715). For an earlier example of Limerick's more accommodationist approach to the word "frontier," see "Parts and Whole: Appraising [Western] Regionalism in American History" (Commentary delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 18, 1993). Also fascinating in this context is Kerwin Lee Klein, "Reclaiming the "F" Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, LXV (1996), 179-215.
57. Patricia Nelson Limerick, "The Persistence of the Frontier," Harper's, CCLXXXIX (1994), 21-24, extracted from her longer essay "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century," in James Grossman, ed., The Frontier in American Culture: Essays by Richard White and Patricia Nelson Limerick (Berkeley, 1994). See also Limerick's essay "Turnerians All," which, while still critical, demonstrates a growing empathy for Turner. "Turner," she notes, "embodied the idea of historians as public servants, as scholars whose inquiries into the past could contribute directly and concretely to human well-being in the present" (p. 715). For an earlier example of Limerick's more accommodationist approach to the word "frontier," see "Parts and Whole: Appraising [Western] Regionalism in American History" (Commentary delivered at the Organization of American Historians meeting, Anaheim, Calif., April 18, 1993). Also fascinating in this context is Kerwin Lee Klein, "Reclaiming the "F" Word, Or Being and Becoming Postwestern," Pacific Historical Review, LXV (1996), 179-215.
58. There is a vast literature on the frontier thesis and the periodic attacks upon it that began in earnest in the early 1930s; for a good recent overview, see Steven Sturgeon, "Where Seldom Is Heard a Discouraging Word: The Failure of the First Anti-Turner Rebellion, 1930-1945," unpublished manuscript, author's files.
59. See also Ray A. Billington, The American Frontier Thesis: Attack and Defense (Washington, D.C., 1971);
60. George Rogers Taylor, ed., The Turner Thesis: Concerning the Role of the Frontier in American History (Lexington, Mass., 1972);
61. and Vernon E. Matteson and William E. Marion, eds., Frederick Jackson Turner: A Reference Guide (Boston, 1985).
62. am reminded, as historians jealously guard their historiographical territory and question the "newness" of the New Western History, of the earlier scholarly fascination with Turner's "precursors." Characteristic of the "precursor approach" to Turner are Lee Benson's appraisal of the Italian economist Achille Loria in Turner and Beard: American Historical Writing Reconsidered (New York, 1960);
63. Wirt A. Cate, "Lamar and the Frontier Hypothesis," Journal of Southern History, I (1935), 497-501;
64. and Edith H. Parker, "William Graham Sumner and the Frontier," Southwest Review, XLIV (1956), 357-365.
65. On the issue of the New Western History's "newness," see McMurtry, "Western Ho Hum," 33;
66. Thompson, The New Western History," 58;
67. and Gerald Nash, "The Global Context of the New Western History," 159. It is worth recalling that Gerald Nash issued an early and urgent call to western historians to move beyond the Census of 1890 and examine the twentieth-century West.
68. Nash, "The Twentieth-Century West," Western Historical Quarterly, XIII (1982), 179-181.
69. Walter Nugent's fascinating study, "Where Is the American West? A Survey Report," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLII (Summer, 1992), 2-23, testifies to the lack of consensus among scholars - a healthy one, I would add - over the West's geographic boundaries. The matter of whether to incorporate Alaska, Hawaii, Canadian and Mexican borderlands, and the Pacific Rim into a broader regional West is far from resolved. In outlining the theme of the last (October 1995) Western History Association program - "The North American West: New Boundaries" - Peter Iverson and Gail Nomura note an emphasis on the "fluidity of the region's physical boundaries," with sessions on Canada, Hawaii, and Mexico.
70. Other interesting discussions of the West's regional boundaries are Sandra L. Myres, "What Kind of Animal Be This?" Western Historical Quarterly, XX (1989), 5-17;
71. and Howard R. Lamar, "Much to Celebrate: The Western History Association's Twenty-Fifth Birthday," Western Historical Quarterly, XVII (1986), 397-416.
72. Versions of such a paradigm have been constructed already. See, for example, the sophisticated model of William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin, "Becoming West: Toward a New Meaning for Western History," in Cronon, Miles, and Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky: Rethinking America's Western Past (New York, 1992), 3-27.
73. Cronon, Miles, and Gitlin, "Becoming West," 23.
74. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
75. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
76. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
77. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
78. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
79. William Deverell, "Fighting Words: The Significance of the American West in the History of the United States," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 185-206, 187. For an excellent analysis of the symbiotic relationship between frontier and region in Turner's thinking, see Michael Steiner, "From Frontier to Region: Frederick Jackson Turner and the New Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIV (1995), 479-501. See also Donald G. Holtgrieve, "Frederick Jackson Turner as a Regionalist," Professional Geographer: The Journal of the Association of American Geographers, XXVI (1974), 159-165; and Robert H. Block, "Frederick Jackson Turner and American Geography," Annals of the Association of American Geographers, LXX (1980), 31-42. Another interesting analysis of connections between the frontier as process and the West as place is Stephen Aron, "Lessons in Conquest: Towards a Greater Western History," Pacific Historical Review, LXIII (1994), 125-147. See also Malcolm Rohrbough, The Continuing Search for the American West: Historians Past, Present, and Future," in Gressley, ed., Old West/New West, 125-146. Rohrbough distinguishes between a "First West" (American Revolution to 1850) and a "Second West" (1850-present), and, in doing so, illustrates some of the connections between historians of the frontier process and the West as a region, and deemphasizes 1890 as a chronological divide.
80. This linkage, as perceived by Turner and Royce, receives further coverage in section III, "Exterior Regionalism: The Irony of the West as a Region." For a discussion of the relationship between "the pioneering process" and "regional integration," see Roger L. Nichols, ed., American Frontier and Western Issues: A Historiographical Review (Westport, Conn., 1986), 1-6.
81. An important recent exploration of "exterior" regionalism is David M. Emmons, "Constructed Province: History and the Making of the Last American West," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 437-459; see also "A Roundtable of Responses" to Emmons's article in the same volume, 461-486. The interplay between interior and exterior western regionalism is a topic that deserves further study.
82. An important recent exploration of "exterior" regionalism is David M. Emmons, "Constructed Province: History and the Making of the Last American West," Western Historical Quarterly, XXV (1994), 437-459; see also "A Roundtable of Responses" to Emmons's article in the same volume, 461-486. The interplay between interior and exterior western regionalism is a topic that deserves further study.
83. Clyde A Milner II, "The View from Wisdom: Four Layers of Regional Identity," in William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky, 203-222 (quotations are from this version); the essay appeared earlier under the title "The View From Wisdom: Region and Identity in the Minds of Four Westerners," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 2-17. See also Milner's essay, "The Shared Memory of Montana Pioneers, ibid., XXXVII (Winter, 1987), 2-13. Michael Kammen provides an excellent discussion of the broader national context surrounding the foundation of pioneer societies in his Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York, 1991), 254-282.
84. Clyde A Milner II, "The View from Wisdom: Four Layers of Regional Identity," in William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky, 203-222 (quotations are from this version); the essay appeared earlier under the title "The View From Wisdom: Region and Identity in the Minds of Four Westerners," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 2-17. See also Milner's essay, "The Shared Memory of Montana Pioneers, ibid., XXXVII (Winter, 1987), 2-13. Michael Kammen provides an excellent discussion of the broader national context surrounding the foundation of pioneer societies in his Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York, 1991), 254-282.
85. Clyde A Milner II, "The View from Wisdom: Four Layers of Regional Identity," in William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky, 203-222 (quotations are from this version); the essay appeared earlier under the title "The View From Wisdom: Region and Identity in the Minds of Four Westerners," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 2-17. See also Milner's essay, "The Shared Memory of Montana Pioneers, ibid., XXXVII (Winter, 1987), 2-13. Michael Kammen provides an excellent discussion of the broader national context surrounding the foundation of pioneer societies in his Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York, 1991), 254-282.
86. Clyde A Milner II, "The View from Wisdom: Four Layers of Regional Identity," in William Cronon, George Miles, and Jay Gitlin, eds., Under an Open Sky, 203-222 (quotations are from this version); the essay appeared earlier under the title "The View From Wisdom: Region and Identity in the Minds of Four Westerners," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 2-17. See also Milner's essay, "The Shared Memory of Montana Pioneers, ibid., XXXVII (Winter, 1987), 2-13. Michael Kammen provides an excellent discussion of the broader national context surrounding the foundation of pioneer societies in his Mystic Chords of Memory: The Transformation of Tradition in American Culture (New York, 1991), 254-282.
87. Milner, "The View From Wisdom," 213.
88. It is worth mentioning the somewhat contrary perspective of the late Wallace Stegner, who noted that "[especially in the West, what we have instead of place is space. Place is more than half memory, shared memory. Rarely do Westerners stay long enough at one stop to share much of anything." Stegner, The American West as Living Space (Ann Arbor, 1987), 22.
89. Milner, The View From Wisdom," 213-214.
90. The formation of the organization is discussed in Lottie M. Ramsey, "A Brief History," in Society of Montana Pioneers, Forty-Fourth Annual Convention, Missoula, Montana, August 4, 5, and 6, 1927 - Historian's Annual Report (Missoula, 1927), 53.
91. Frank D. Brown, "Report of the Historian," and James U. Sanders, "Report of the Secretary," in Society of Montana Pioneers, Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting, Livingston, Montana, September 5, 6, and 7, 1917: Officers Reports and Addresses (Missoula, 1918), 7-21, 20, and 35-50, 50, respectively.
92. Frank D. Brown, "Report of the Historian," and James U. Sanders, "Report of the Secretary," in Society of Montana Pioneers, Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting, Livingston, Montana, September 5, 6, and 7, 1917: Officers Reports and Addresses (Missoula, 1918), 7-21, 20, and 35-50, 50, respectively.
93. This brief summary of the Jayhawkers is based on the entry for the Jayhawker Collection in the Guide to Historical Manuscripts in the Huntington Library (San Marino, Calif., 1979). Attached to the Jayhawker party, though not a part of the original group, were the Reverend James Welch Brier (a Methodist minister and perhaps the first person to deliver a Protestant sermon in southern California), his wife Juliet Brier (often labelled "the heroine of Death Valley"), and their three small children.
94. Charles Bert Mecum to Lorenzo Dow Stephens, Jan. 16, 1901, box 6, folder no. JA 712, Jayhawker Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif. For more on the Jayhawkers of '49, see Margaret Long, In the Shadow of the Arrow (Caldwell, Ida., 1950).
95. John Burt Colton, annual reunion invitation letter, Jan. 8, 1906, file no. JA 320-330, box 4, Jayhawker Collection.
96. See, for example, William Lewis Manly, "Climbing in Life" (Feb. 10, 1893), folder JA 650, box 3, ibid. This essay is a eulogy to one of the Jayhawkers who never made it out of Death Valley.
97. See, for example, William Lewis Manly, "Climbing in Life" (Feb. 10, 1893), folder JA 650, box 3, ibid. This essay is a eulogy to one of the Jayhawkers who never made it out of Death Valley.
98. Wallace Stegner's commentary on western placelessness (see note 24) seems applicable in some ways to the surviving Jayhawkers.
99. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
100. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
101. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
102. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
103. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
104. John Steinbeck, The Leader of the People," first published in The Long Valley (New York, 1938), 283-303. The story later appeared as a chapter in Steinbeck's The Red Pony (New York, 1945), 107-131. Warren French provides extensive analysis of this closed frontier theme in The Leader of the People" in his "Death of the Dream" (Unpublished seminar paper, University of Texas, Austin, for Walter Prescott Webb, 1953), 88-91. Grandfather Tifflin's lamentations serve as the starting point for Howard Lamar's essay, "Westering in the Twenty-first Century: Speculations on the Future of the Western Past," in Under an Open Sky, 257-274. The closed frontier theme in Steinbeck's work is also discussed in David M. Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism: Frontier Anxiety from the Old West to the New Deal (Lawrence, 1993), 124-125; and Walter Rundell, Jr., "Steinbeck's Image of the West," American West, I (1964), 4-17, 79.
105. Minnie Moeller to John Burt Colton, Jan. 16, 1914, folder 747-51, box 6, Jayhawker Collection.
106. For a contrary argument, and a superbly executed one, see Anne F. Hyde, "Cultural Filters: The Significance of Perception in the History of the American West," Western Historical Quarterly, XXIV (1993), 351-374, and her book An American Vision: Far Western Landscape and National Culture, 1820-1920 (New York, 1990). Hyde contends that "the West has shaping power because of its unique geography and not necessarily because it was or is a frontier" (p. 351).
107. For a contrary argument, and a superbly executed one, see Anne F. Hyde, "Cultural Filters: The Significance of Perception in the History of the
108. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
109. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
110. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
111. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
112. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
113. A fascinating and often overlooked essay on the relationship between pioneers and their progeny is Frederick Jackson Turner's "The Children of the Pioneers," Yale Review, XV (1926), 645-670, reprinted in The Significance of Sections in American History (New York, 1932), 256-286. Also useful in this context is John W. Caughey's introductory essay, "The American West Frontier and Region," in Caughey, The American West: Frontier and Region, ed. and intro. by Norris Hundley, jr., and John A. Schutz (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-11. The process by which a sense of place develops is further explored in Wayne Franklin and Michael Steiner's introduction in "Taking Place: Toward the Regrounding of American Studies," and in a number of the essays in Franklin and Steiner, eds., Mapping American Culture (Iowa City, 1992), 3-23. Michael Kammen provides a brief and interesting discussion of the relationship between sense of place and "enthusiasm for historical geography," in Mystic Chords of Memory, 181-184. This relationship is further explored in Simom Schama's recent pathbreaking work, Landscape and Memory (New York, 1995).
114. See Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism.
115. Frederick Jackson Turner points to the potentially harmful influence of the frontier in "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," in Martin Ridge, ed., History, Frontier, and Section: Three Essays by Frederick Jackson Turner (Albuquerque, 1993), 59-91, 83-84, and 87.
116. Herbert Croly, Walter Weyl, John Dewey, Waldo Frank, Van Wyck Brooks, Lewis Mumford, and other critics of the frontier's influence, including James Truslow Adams and Alfred Booth Kuttner, are discussed in Wrobel, The End of American Exceptionalism, 79-83, 107-111, and 128-129.
117. It is worth noting that both Garland and Howells would, later in their writing careers, exhibit far greater optimism concerning the development of regional consciousness in the wake of the frontier's passing. Garland, as historian Henry Steele Commager noted nearly half a century ago, "yielded to the lure of the Far West." The American Mind: An Interpretation of American Thought and Character since the 1880s (New Haven, 1950, 1971), 61.
118. Richard Slotkin's work constitutes an interesting alternative to this model. See Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), The Fatal Environment: The Myth ofthe Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (New York, 1985), and most especially Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992). For Slotkin, keeping the frontier in the picture (on the levels of myth, symbol, and metaphor) is almost a prerequisite for the critical assessment of American social and political development in the twentieth century. In the final volume of his trilogy, Gunfighter Nation, Slotkin argues for the centrality of the frontier theme in American cultural and political life as late as the Vietnam era. I would argue that by the end of the New Deal era the word "frontier" had become something of a cliché and was less directly influential than it had been in the previous half century. For more on the frontier theme in recent decades, see Limerick, "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century."
119. Richard Slotkin's work constitutes an interesting alternative to this model. See Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), The Fatal Environment: The Myth ofthe Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (New York, 1985), and most especially Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992). For Slotkin, keeping the frontier in the picture (on the levels of myth, symbol, and metaphor) is almost a prerequisite for the critical assessment of American social and political development in the twentieth century. In the final volume of his trilogy, Gunfighter Nation, Slotkin argues for the centrality of the frontier theme in American cultural and political life as late as the Vietnam era. I would argue that by the end of the New Deal era the word "frontier" had become something of a cliché and was less directly influential than it had been in the previous half century. For more on the frontier theme in recent decades, see Limerick, "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century."
120. Richard Slotkin's work constitutes an interesting alternative to this model. See Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), The Fatal Environment: The Myth ofthe Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (New York, 1985), and most especially Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992). For Slotkin, keeping the frontier in the picture (on the levels of myth, symbol, and metaphor) is almost a prerequisite for the critical assessment of American social and political development in the twentieth century. In the final volume of his trilogy, Gunfighter Nation, Slotkin argues for the centrality of the frontier theme in American cultural and political life as late as the Vietnam era. I would argue that by the end of the New Deal era the word "frontier" had become something of a cliché and was less directly influential than it had been in the previous half century. For more on the frontier theme in recent decades, see Limerick, "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century."
121. Richard Slotkin's work constitutes an interesting alternative to this model. See Regeneration through Violence: The Mythology of the American Frontier, 1600-1860 (Middletown, Conn., 1973), The Fatal Environment: The Myth ofthe Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (New York, 1985), and most especially Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York, 1992). For Slotkin, keeping the frontier in the picture (on the levels of myth, symbol, and metaphor) is almost a prerequisite for the critical assessment of American social and political development in the twentieth century. In the final volume of his trilogy, Gunfighter Nation, Slotkin argues for the centrality of the frontier theme in American cultural and political life as late as the Vietnam era. I would argue that by the end of the New Deal era the word "frontier" had become something of a cliché and was less directly influential than it had been in the previous half century. For more on the frontier theme in recent decades, see Limerick, "The Adventures of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century."
122. For an excellent, though much later, example of the homogenization process, see Henry Adams Bellows, "The Real Sentiment of the Middle West," Boston Transcript, April 22, 1916, p. 7. Bellows argues that the Middle West/West (he uses the terms interchangeably) is not fundamentally different from the East and that the transition from frontier to region accounts for temporary regional peculiarities: "Any region, which has just got through with its pioneer days, and is rapidly adopting the uses of culture and education, is inevitably self-conscious."
123. Woodrow Wilson, "The Making of the Nation," Atlantic Monthly, LXXX (1897), 1-14, reprinted in Ray Stannard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. I: College and State: Educational, Literary and Political Papers (1875-1913) (New York, 1925), 310-335; quotations are from the original. Wilson's essay also receives brief coverage in George C. Osborn, Woodrow Wilson: The Early Years (Baton Rouge, 1968), 267-268.
124. Woodrow Wilson, "The Making of the Nation," Atlantic Monthly, LXXX (1897), 1-14, reprinted in Ray Stannard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. I: College and State: Educational, Literary and Political Papers (1875-1913) (New York, 1925), 310-335; quotations are from the original. Wilson's essay also receives brief coverage in George C. Osborn, Woodrow Wilson: The Early Years (Baton Rouge, 1968), 267-268.
125. Woodrow Wilson, "The Making of the Nation," Atlantic Monthly, LXXX (1897), 1-14, reprinted in Ray Stannard Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. I: College and State: Educational, Literary and Political Papers (1875-1913) (New York, 1925), 310-335; quotations are from the original. Wilson's essay also receives brief coverage in George C. Osborn, Woodrow Wilson: The Early Years (Baton Rouge, 1968), 267-268.
126. Wilson, "The Making of the Nation," 10.
127. Forty years later Walter Prescott Webb constructed a similar, though far less optimistic, argument in his book Divided We Stand: The Crisis of a Frontierless Democracy (New York, 1937).
128. Clipping from Lewiston (Maine) Journal, Sept. 29, 1922, folder 3: Sections and Nation, file drawer 14B, Turner Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library. The essay "Sections and Nation" appeared in the October, 1922, issue of The Yale Review, 1-22. The essay is reprinted in Faragher, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 181-200; quotations are from the reprint For a fuller discussion of the reaction to this essay, see Ray Allen Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher (New York, 1973), 380-382.
129. Clipping from Lewiston (Maine) Journal, Sept. 29, 1922, folder 3: Sections and Nation, file drawer 14B, Turner Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library. The essay "Sections and Nation" appeared in the October, 1922, issue of The Yale Review, 1-22. The essay is reprinted in Faragher, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 181-200; quotations are from the reprint For a fuller discussion of the reaction to this essay, see Ray Allen Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher (New York, 1973), 380-382.
130. Clipping from Lewiston (Maine) Journal, Sept. 29, 1922, folder 3: Sections and Nation, file drawer 14B, Turner Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library. The essay "Sections and Nation" appeared in the October, 1922, issue of The Yale Review, 1-22. The essay is reprinted in Faragher, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 181-200; quotations are from the reprint For a fuller discussion of the reaction to this essay, see Ray Allen Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher (New York, 1973), 380-382.
131. Clipping from Lewiston (Maine) Journal, Sept. 29, 1922, folder 3: Sections and Nation, file drawer 14B, Turner Collection, Henry E. Huntington Library. The essay "Sections and Nation" appeared in the October, 1922, issue of The Yale Review, 1-22. The essay is reprinted in Faragher, Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 181-200; quotations are from the reprint For a fuller discussion of the reaction to this essay, see Ray Allen Billington, Frederick Jackson Turner: Historian, Scholar, Teacher (New York, 1973), 380-382.
132. Frederick Jackson Turner, "Recent American Sectionalism (Revised Draft)," Dec. 15, 1921, p. 15, folder 17, file drawer 14A, Turner Collection.
133. Frederick Jackson Turner, "Sections and Nation," 199, 200.
134. Turner, "Recent American Sectionalism," 16-17
135. Michael C. Steiner, "Frederick Jackson Turner and Western Regionalism," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 103-135; "The Significance of Turner's Sectional Thesis," Western Historical Quarterly, X (1979), 437-466; and,
136. Michael C. Steiner, "Frederick Jackson Turner and Western Regionalism," in Etulain, ed., Writing Western History, 103-135; "The Significance of Turner's Sectional Thesis," Western Historical Quarterly, X (1979), 437-466; and,
137. most recently, "From Frontier to Region." The sectional thesis itself, "The Significance of the Section in American History" (1925), has been reprinted recently in Ridge, ed., History, Frontier, and Section, 93-116;
138. and in Faragher, ed., Rereading Frederick Jackson Turner, 201-224.
139. Steiner, "From Frontier to Region," 483. For another discussion of Turner's regionalism, see Richard White, "Trashing the Trails," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 26-39, 35. Peter Novick provides a discussion of regionalism among historians and of the impact of Turner's sectional thesis in fostering the growth of regional consciousness in That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 180-185.
140. Steiner, "From Frontier to Region," 483. For another discussion of Turner's regionalism, see Richard White, "Trashing the Trails," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 26-39, 35. Peter Novick provides a discussion of regionalism among historians and of the impact of Turner's sectional thesis in fostering the growth of regional consciousness in That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 180-185.
141. Steiner, "From Frontier to Region," 483. For another discussion of Turner's regionalism, see Richard White, "Trashing the Trails," in Limerick, Milner, and Rankin, eds., Trails, 26-39, 35. Peter Novick provides a discussion of regionalism among historians and of the impact of Turner's sectional thesis in fostering the growth of regional consciousness in That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (New York, 1988), 180-185.
142. Frederick Jackson Turner, "Talk on Sectionalism (Draft)," April 1922, folder 11, file drawer 14A, Turner Collection.
143. Royce, "Provincialism." This 1902 Phi Beta Kappa Address at the State University of Iowa was first printed in the Boston Evening Transcript, then reprinted in Race Questions, Provincialism, and Other American Problems (New York, 1908), 57-108,
144. and more recently published in JohnJ. McDermott, ed., The Basic Writings of Josiah Royce (2 vols., Chicago, 1969), 1067-1088.
145. The quotation is from Race Questions, 64-65.
146. For more on the regionalism of that later period, see Robert L. Dorman, Revolt of the Provinces: The Regionalist Movement in America, 1920-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Michael Steiner, "Regionalism in the Great Depression," Geographical Review, LXXIII (1983), 430-446.
147. For more on the regionalism of that later period, see Robert L. Dorman, Revolt of the Provinces: The Regionalist Movement in America, 1920-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Michael Steiner, "Regionalism in the Great Depression," Geographical Review, LXXIII (1983), 430-446.
148. Michael Steiner discusses the connection between Turner's sectionalism and Royce's wise provincialism in "Frederick Jackson Turner and Western Regionalism," 113, 119.
149. Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman, 1992), 199. See also Hine's articles: "The Western Intellectual: Josiah Royce," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 70-72; and The American West as Metaphysics: A Perspective on Josiah Royce," Pacific Historical Review, LVIII (1989), 267-291. Also useful in connection with the topic of regional consciousness is Hine's earlier work, Community on the Frontier: Separate But Not Alone (Norman, 1980). Richard Etulain provides a brief but insightful analysis of Royce's regionalism in his essay "Frontier, Region, and Myth: Changing Interpretations of Western American Culture," Journal of American Culture, III (1980), 268-284.
150. Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman, 1992), 199. See also Hine's articles: "The Western Intellectual: Josiah Royce," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 70-72; and The American West as Metaphysics: A Perspective on Josiah Royce," Pacific Historical Review, LVIII (1989), 267-291. Also useful in connection with the topic of regional consciousness is Hine's earlier work, Community on the Frontier: Separate But Not Alone (Norman, 1980). Richard Etulain provides a brief but insightful analysis of Royce's regionalism in his essay "Frontier, Region, and Myth: Changing Interpretations of Western American Culture," Journal of American Culture, III (1980), 268-284.
151. Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman, 1992), 199. See also Hine's articles: "The Western Intellectual: Josiah Royce," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 70-72; and The American West as Metaphysics: A Perspective on Josiah Royce," Pacific Historical Review, LVIII (1989), 267-291. Also useful in connection with the topic of regional consciousness is Hine's earlier work, Community on the Frontier: Separate But Not Alone (Norman, 1980). Richard Etulain provides a brief but insightful analysis of Royce's regionalism in his essay "Frontier, Region, and Myth: Changing Interpretations of Western American Culture," Journal of American Culture, III (1980), 268-284.
152. Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman, 1992), 199. See also Hine's articles: "The Western Intellectual: Josiah Royce," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 70-72; and The American West as Metaphysics: A Perspective on Josiah Royce," Pacific Historical Review, LVIII (1989), 267-291. Also useful in connection with the topic of regional consciousness is Hine's earlier work, Community on the Frontier: Separate But Not Alone (Norman, 1980). Richard Etulain provides a brief but insightful analysis of Royce's regionalism in his essay "Frontier, Region, and Myth: Changing Interpretations of Western American Culture," Journal of American Culture, III (1980), 268-284.
153. Robert V. Hine, Josiah Royce: From Grass Valley to Harvard (Norman, 1992), 199. See also Hine's articles: "The Western Intellectual: Josiah Royce," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLI (Summer, 1991), 70-72; and The American West as Metaphysics: A Perspective on Josiah Royce," Pacific Historical Review, LVIII (1989), 267-291. Also useful in connection with the topic of regional consciousness is Hine's earlier work, Community on the Frontier: Separate But Not Alone (Norman, 1980). Richard Etulain provides a brief but insightful analysis of Royce's regionalism in his essay "Frontier, Region, and Myth: Changing Interpretations of Western American Culture," Journal of American Culture, III (1980), 268-284.
154. Royce's thinking on the development of regional consciousness neatly parallels that of Clyde Milner in "The View from Wisdom." See "The Pacific Coast: A Psychological Study of the Relations of Climate and Civilization," an address prepared for the National Geographical Society in 1898 and printed in Race Questions, 169-225, where Royce notes: "between 1860 and 1870 a definite local tradition of California life was developed upon the basis of the memories and characters that had been formed in the early days. The consequence was a provincial California..." (p. 212).
155. Royce's thinking on the development of regional consciousness neatly parallels that of Clyde Milner in "The View from Wisdom." See "The Pacific Coast: A Psychological Study of the Relations of Climate and Civilization," an address prepared for the National Geographical Society in 1898 and printed in Race Questions, 169-225, where Royce notes: "between 1860 and 1870 a definite local tradition of California life was developed upon the basis of the memories and characters that had been formed in the early days. The consequence was a provincial California..." (p. 212).
156. Charles F. Lummis, "Santa Fe: The Capital of Our Romance," in the promotional booklet Old Santa Fe and Roundabout (Chicago, 1925), 5-10. Kevin Starr has noted that Lummis was one of many boosters in the 1890s who drew on the romance of southern California's past to sell the region as a tourist, residential, and investment haven. Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (New York, 1985); see also Martin Padget, "Cultural Geographies: Travel Writing in the Southwest, 1869-1897" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1993), 196-197.
157. Charles F. Lummis, "Santa Fe: The Capital of Our Romance," in the promotional booklet Old Santa Fe and Roundabout (Chicago, 1925), 5-10. Kevin Starr has noted that Lummis was one of many boosters in the 1890s who drew on the romance of southern California's past to sell the region as a tourist, residential, and investment haven. Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (New York, 1985); see also Martin Padget, "Cultural Geographies: Travel Writing in the Southwest, 1869-1897" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1993), 196-197.
158. Charles F. Lummis, "Santa Fe: The Capital of Our Romance," in the promotional booklet Old Santa Fe and Roundabout (Chicago, 1925), 5-10. Kevin Starr has noted that Lummis was one of many boosters in the 1890s who drew on the romance of southern California's past to sell the region as a tourist, residential, and investment haven. Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: California through the Progressive Era (New York, 1985); see also Martin Padget, "Cultural Geographies: Travel Writing in the Southwest, 1869-1897" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1993), 196-197.
159. During his journey Lummis wrote descriptive pieces for the Chillicothe Leader. Charles Lummis, Letters from the Southwest: September 20, 1884, to March 14, 1885, ed., James W. Byrkit (Tucson, 1989).
160. Charles Lummis to John Burt Colton, Feb. 12, 1913, file 591-595, Jayhawker Collection. See also Lummis's letters to Colton dated Feb. 14, March 14, April 6, 1914, and April 18, 1916, file 596-600, ibid. It is worth noting that the two had recently met, and Lummis's letter of February 12, 1913, followed an apparently quite heated verbal exchange as he sought to acquire important collections, such as the Jayhawkers', for the Southwest Museum. Incidentally, Colton was by this time living in Kansas City, Missouri, which, in Lummis's estimation, was no reason to deposit his party's records there, instead of the Southwest Museum. The Jayhawker papers would end up at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.
161. Charles Lummis, "Lost - A Man," Land of Sunshine: The Magazine of California and the West, ed. Lummis, XII (1900), 161.
162. Bernard De Voto, "Footnote on the West," Harper's Monthly Magazine, CLV (1927), 712-721. De Voto pointed to a combination of environmental factors - landscape and climate - and the powerful memory of the frontier as the forces nurturing Inter-Mountain regional consciousness.
163. The late Robert Athearn provided an excellent discussion of this elevated westerness in his posthumously published The Mythic West in Twentieth-Century America (Lawrence, 1989), 233-248.
164. For more on Montana's exceptional westernness, see Joseph Kinsey Howard, Montana: High, Wide, and Handsome (1959; reprinted, Lincoln, 1983).
165. L. Neuberger, Our Promised Land (New York, 1938).
166. Robert E. Lang, Deborah Epstein Popper, and Frank J. Popper, "'Progress of the Nation': The Settlement History of the Enduring American Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 289-307. See also Frank J. Popper, "The Strange Case of the Contemporary American Frontier," Yale Review, LXXVI (1986), 101-121; and Frank J. Popper and Deborah Epstein Popper, "The Reinvention of the American Frontier," Amicus Journal, XIII (1991), 4-7.
167. Robert E. Lang, Deborah Epstein Popper, and Frank J. Popper, "'Progress of the Nation': The Settlement History of the Enduring American Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 289-307. See also Frank J. Popper, "The Strange Case of the Contemporary American Frontier," Yale Review, LXXVI (1986), 101-121; and Frank J. Popper and Deborah Epstein Popper, "The Reinvention of the American Frontier," Amicus Journal, XIII (1991), 4-7.
168. Robert E. Lang, Deborah Epstein Popper, and Frank J. Popper, "'Progress of the Nation': The Settlement History of the Enduring American Frontier," Western Historical Quarterly, XXVI (1995), 289-307. See also Frank J. Popper, "The Strange Case of the Contemporary American Frontier," Yale Review, LXXVI (1986), 101-121; and Frank J. Popper and Deborah Epstein Popper, "The Reinvention of the American Frontier," Amicus Journal, XIII (1991), 4-7.
169. Frederick Luebke, "Regionalism and the Great Plains: Problems of Concept and Method," Western Historical Quarterly, XV (1984), 19-38. Luebke suggests that we ask "how a specific behavior of a certain social grouping within a given region compares (1) to that of other social categories in the same environment, (2) to that of the same group in other environments, and (3) to what the behavior of the group in question became later in time" (p. 34).
170. Annette Kolodny, "Letting Go Our Grand Obsessions: Notes Toward a New Literary History of the American Frontiers," American Literature, LXIV (1992), 1-18. Two good sources of information on cultural encounters between various racial and ethnic groups are Sucheng Chan, Douglas Henry Daniels, Mario T. García, and Terry P. Wilson, eds., Peoples of Colorin the American West (Lexington, Mass., 1994); and Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror A History of Multicultural America (Boston, 1993).
171. Annette Kolodny, "Letting Go Our Grand Obsessions: Notes Toward a New Literary History of the American Frontiers," American Literature, LXIV (1992), 1-18. Two good sources of information on cultural encounters between various racial and ethnic groups are Sucheng Chan, Douglas Henry Daniels, Mario T. García, and Terry P. Wilson, eds., Peoples of Colorin the American West (Lexington, Mass., 1994); and Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror A History of Multicultural America (Boston, 1993).
172. Annette Kolodny, "Letting Go Our Grand Obsessions: Notes Toward a New Literary History of the American Frontiers," American Literature, LXIV (1992), 1-18. Two good sources of information on cultural encounters between various racial and ethnic groups are Sucheng Chan, Douglas Henry Daniels, Mario T. García, and Terry P. Wilson, eds., Peoples of Colorin the American West (Lexington, Mass., 1994); and Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror A History of Multicultural America (Boston, 1993).
173. Terry G. Jordan, "The Anglo-Texan Homeland," Journal of Cultural Geography, XIII (1993), 75-86.
174. Richard Etulain, "Frontier, Region, and Border: Cultural Currents in the Recent Southwest," Montana, the Magazine of Western History, XLIV (Winter, 1994), 64-70. Etulain discusses a "postregional southwestern culture [which] clearly incorporates frontier, regional, and border legacies of the Southwest" (p. 70).
175. Michael P. Malone, "Toward a New Approach to Western American History," 150. The recent emphasis of Limerick and White on the frontier theme (see note 14) suggests that the field is moving beyond the frontier-region dichotomy.