From coffee to tea: Shifting patterns of consumption in Qajar Iran

Journal of World History

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 199-229

  Matthee, Rudi ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COFFEE TRADE; CONSUMPTION TRENDS; HISTORICAL STUDY; REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION; SOCIAL STRATIFICATION;

IRAN;

EID: 0030436046     PISSN: 10456007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2005.0041     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. Recent social studies of coffee and other stimulants in European countries include the contributions in Wandel der Volkskultur in Europa, vol. 1: Festschrift für Günter Wiegelmann zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Nils-Arvid Bringéus et al. (Münster, 1988); Daniella Ball, ed., Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten (Zurich, 1991): Pim Reinders and Thera Wijsenbeek, Koffie in Nederland: Vier eeuwen cultuurgeschiedenis (Zutphen, 1994); and the special issue on Kolonialwaren of Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1994).
2. Recent social studies of coffee and other stimulants in European countries include the contributions in Wandel der Volkskultur in Europa, vol. 1: Festschrift für Günter Wiegelmann zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Nils-Arvid Bringéus et al. (Münster, 1988); Daniella Ball, ed., Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten (Zurich, 1991): Pim Reinders and Thera Wijsenbeek, Koffie in Nederland: Vier eeuwen cultuurgeschiedenis (Zutphen, 1994); and the special issue on Kolonialwaren of Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1994).
3. Recent social studies of coffee and other stimulants in European countries include the contributions in Wandel der Volkskultur in Europa, vol. 1: Festschrift für Günter Wiegelmann zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Nils-Arvid Bringéus et al. (Münster, 1988); Daniella Ball, ed., Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten (Zurich, 1991): Pim Reinders and Thera Wijsenbeek, Koffie in Nederland: Vier eeuwen cultuurgeschiedenis (Zutphen, 1994); and the special issue on Kolonialwaren of Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1994).
4. Recent social studies of coffee and other stimulants in European countries include the contributions in Wandel der Volkskultur in Europa, vol. 1: Festschrift für Günter Wiegelmann zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Nils-Arvid Bringéus et al. (Münster, 1988); Daniella Ball, ed., Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten (Zurich, 1991): Pim Reinders and Thera Wijsenbeek, Koffie in Nederland: Vier eeuwen cultuurgeschiedenis (Zutphen, 1994); and the special issue on Kolonialwaren of Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1994).
5. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in the Modern World (New York, 1985). See also Woodruff D. Smith, "Complications of the Commonplace: Tea, Sugar, and Imperialism," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23 (1992): 259-78.
6. Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in the Modern World (New York, 1985). See also Woodruff D. Smith, "Complications of the Commonplace: Tea, Sugar, and Imperialism," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 23 (1992): 259-78.
7. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Das Paradies, der Geschmack und die Vernunft (Munich, 1981); translated as Tastes of Paradise: A Social History of Spices, Stimulants, and Intoxicants (New York, 1992).
8. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Das Paradies, der Geschmack und die Vernunft (Munich, 1981); translated as Tastes of Paradise: A Social History of Spices, Stimulants, and Intoxicants (New York, 1992).
9. Karl Wassenberg, Tee in Ostfriesland: Vom religiösen Wundertrank zum profanen Volksgetränk (Leer, 1991). Wassenberg seeks to explain the peculiar predilection of east Frisians for tea by referring to the context: a Calvinist environment that hailed the beverage as a quasi-celestial drink, northwest Germany's exposure to the maritime trade that supplied the commodity, and the region's adversarial relationship with the centralizing Prussian state, which promoted beer and coffee for the revenue it derived from them.
10. R. E. F. Smith and David Christian, Bread and Salt: A Social and Economic History of Russia (Cambridge, 1984).
11. For Yemen, see C. G. Brouwer, Cauwa ende Comptanten: De Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Jemen / Cowha and Cash: The Dutch East India Company in Yemen (Amsterdam, 1988). For coffee in the Ottoman empire, of which Yemen was a part as of the mid-sixteenth century, see Ralph S. Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East (Seattle, 1985). A recent study of tea in China is John C. Evans, Tea in China: The History of China's National Drink (New York, 1992). See also Rudi Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran: Commerce and Consumption," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37 (1994): 1-32.
12. For Yemen, see C. G. Brouwer, Cauwa ende Comptanten: De Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Jemen / Cowha and Cash: The Dutch East India Company in Yemen (Amsterdam, 1988). For coffee in the Ottoman empire, of which Yemen was a part as of the mid-sixteenth century, see Ralph S. Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East (Seattle, 1985). A recent study of tea in China is John C. Evans, Tea in China: The History of China's National Drink (New York, 1992). See also Rudi Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran: Commerce and Consumption," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37 (1994): 1-32.
13. For Yemen, see C. G. Brouwer, Cauwa ende Comptanten: De Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Jemen / Cowha and Cash: The Dutch East India Company in Yemen (Amsterdam, 1988). For coffee in the Ottoman empire, of which Yemen was a part as of the mid-sixteenth century, see Ralph S. Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East (Seattle, 1985). A recent study of tea in China is John C. Evans, Tea in China: The History of China's National Drink (New York, 1992). See also Rudi Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran: Commerce and Consumption," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37 (1994): 1-32.
14. For Yemen, see C. G. Brouwer, Cauwa ende Comptanten: De Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Jemen / Cowha and Cash: The Dutch East India Company in Yemen (Amsterdam, 1988). For coffee in the Ottoman empire, of which Yemen was a part as of the mid-sixteenth century, see Ralph S. Hattox, Coffee and Coffeehouses: The Origins of a Social Beverage in the Medieval Near East (Seattle, 1985). A recent study of tea in China is John C. Evans, Tea in China: The History of China's National Drink (New York, 1992). See also Rudi Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran: Commerce and Consumption," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37 (1994): 1-32.
15. See John Burnett, "Coffee in the British Diet, 1650-1990," in Kaffee im Spiegel europäischer Trinksitten, ed. Ball, pp. 35-52.
16. See Omar Carlier, "Le café maure: Sociabilité masculine et effervescence citoyenne (Algérie XVIIe-XXe siècles)," Annales, ESC (1990): 976-77.
17. Richard Tapper, "Blood, Wine and Water: Social and Symbolic Aspects of Drinks and Drinking in the Islamic Middle East," in Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, ed. Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper (London, 1994), pp. 218-19.
18. See Aladin Goushegir, "Le café en Iran des Safavides aux Qajar à l'époque actuelle," in Contributions au thème du et des cafés dans les sociétés du Proche-Orient, ed. Hélène Desmet-Grégoire (Aix-en-Provence, 1991), pp. 76-78.
19. Mulla Jalal al-Din Munajjim, Tarikh-i 'abbasi ya ruznamah-i Mulla Jalal (Tehran, 1366/ 1987), pp. 236-37.
20. See Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran," p. 23. The German physician-cum-traveler Engelbert Kaempfer, who visited Iran hetween 1683 and 1685, noted that all over Iran, in the bazaars and the roads, day laboreres could be seen grinding coffee. Neither he nor any other source, however, confirms the existence of real coffeehouses outside the urban setting. See Engelbert Kaempfer, Die Reisetagebücher Engelbert Kaempfers, ed. Karl Meier-Lemgo (Wiesbaden, 1968), p. 115.
21. See Matthee, "Coffee in Safavid Iran," p. 23. The German physician-cum-traveler Engelbert Kaempfer, who visited Iran hetween 1683 and 1685, noted that all over Iran, in the bazaars and the roads, day laboreres could be seen grinding coffee. Neither he nor any other source, however, confirms the existence of real coffeehouses outside the urban setting. See Engelbert Kaempfer, Die Reisetagebücher Engelbert Kaempfers, ed. Karl Meier-Lemgo (Wiesbaden, 1968), p. 115.
22. See Giovanni Gianbattista Ramusio, Delle navigationi e viaggi raccolte da M. Gio. Battista Ramusio, 3 vols. (Venice, 1559), 2:15.
23. Berthold Laufer, Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the Hitory of Civilization in Ancient Iran with Special Reference to the History of Cultivated Plants and Products (Chicago, 1919), pp. 553-54.
24. Adam Olearius, Vermehrte newe Beschreibung der muscowitischen und persischen Reyse (Schleswig, 1656), p. 599.
25. For the Dutch role in the East Asian tea trade, see Roderich Ptak, "Die Rolle der Chinesen, Portugiesen und Holländer im Teehandel zwischen China und Südostasien (ca. 1600-1750)," Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1994): 89-105.
26. Algemeen Rijks Archief (Dutch National Archives, hereafter cited as ARA), The Hague, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie (hereafter cited as VOC) 1144, Gamron to Batavia, 14 May 1643, fol. 489. The same missive is found in VOC 1146, fol. 813v.
27. ARA, VOC 1178, Gamron to Batavia, 6 April 1650.
28. ARA, VOC 1549, Gamron to Batavia, 24 October 1694, fol. 602r.
29. While sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Persian court chronicles yield much information on political and especially military events in Khorasan, it is not until the early nineteenth century that (European) eyewitness reports tell us more about social conditions and people's daily lives.
30. See ARA, VOC, General Missiven, 30 Novemher 1640, published in Generale Missiven van Gouverneurs-Generaal en Raden aan Heren XVII der Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, ed W. Ph. Coolhaas (The Hague, 1964), 2:115.
31. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Les six voyages de Jean-Bapt. Tavernier en Turquie, en Perse, et aux Indes, 2 vols. (Utrecht, 1712), 1:714-15.
32. For the teahouses, see Olearius, Vermehrte newe Beschreibung, pp. 599-600. Tea in connection with bathhouses is mentioned by John A. Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years' Travels, 1672-1681, ed. W. Crooke, 3 vols. (London, 1909-15), 3:33-34. Engelbert Kaempfer was treated to tea in Shamakhi and Qazvin during his journey to Isfahan in 1683-84. See Kaempfer, Die Reisetagebücher, pp. 45, 69.
33. For the teahouses, see Olearius, Vermehrte newe Beschreibung, pp. 599-600. Tea in connection with bathhouses is mentioned by John A. Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years' Travels, 1672-1681, ed. W. Crooke, 3 vols. (London, 1909-15), 3:33-34. Engelbert Kaempfer was treated to tea in Shamakhi and Qazvin during his journey to Isfahan in 1683-84. See Kaempfer, Die Reisetagebücher, pp. 45, 69.
34. For the teahouses, see Olearius, Vermehrte newe Beschreibung, pp. 599-600. Tea in connection with bathhouses is mentioned by John A. Fryer, A New Account of East India and Persia, Being Nine Years' Travels, 1672-1681, ed. W. Crooke, 3 vols. (London, 1909-15), 3:33-34. Engelbert Kaempfer was treated to tea in Shamakhi and Qazvin during his journey to Isfahan in 1683-84. See Kaempfer, Die Reisetagebücher, pp. 45, 69.
35. A. Qazvini, "Dar mazarrat-i dukhaniyat va qahvah va afyun," Sukhan 17 (1346/ 1967): 372-74.
36. See, for example, Shaykh Muhammad b. al-Hasan Hurr al-'Amili, Wasa'il al-shi'ah ila tahsil masa'il al-shari'ah (Tehran, 1388/1968-69), p. 307. See also Rasul Ja'fariyan, Din va, siyasat dar daurah-i safavi (Tehran, 1370/1991), p. 364; and Agha Buzurg Tihrani, Tabaqat 'alam al-shi'ah, 5 vols. (Qum, 1990), 5:603.
37. See, for example, Shaykh Muhammad b. al-Hasan Hurr al-'Amili, Wasa'il al-shi'ah ila tahsil masa'il al-shari'ah (Tehran, 1388/1968-69), p. 307. See also Rasul Ja'fariyan, Din va, siyasat dar daurah-i safavi (Tehran, 1370/1991), p. 364; and Agha Buzurg Tihrani, Tabaqat 'alam al-shi'ah, 5 vols. (Qum, 1990), 5:603.
38. See, for example, Shaykh Muhammad b. al-Hasan Hurr al-'Amili, Wasa'il al-shi'ah ila tahsil masa'il al-shari'ah (Tehran, 1388/1968-69), p. 307. See also Rasul Ja'fariyan, Din va, siyasat dar daurah-i safavi (Tehran, 1370/1991), p. 364; and Agha Buzurg Tihrani, Tabaqat 'alam al-shi'ah, 5 vols. (Qum, 1990), 5:603.
39. See Kathryn Babayan, "The Waning of the Qizilbash: The Temporal and the Spiritual in Seventeenth-Century Iran" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1993), pp. 255-63.
40. G. A. Olivier, Voyage dans L'empire Othoman, l'Egypte et la Perse, 6 vols. (Paris, 1807), 5:275-77.
41. For this transformation in France, see Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York, 1984), chap. 3, "The Bourgeois Puts His World in Order: The World as a Text," pp. 107-44.
42. For this transformation in France, see Robert Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre and Other Episodes in French Cultural History (New York, 1984), chap. 3, "The Bourgeois Puts His World in Order: The World as a Text," pp. 107-44.
43. Mirza Mihdi Khan Astarabadi, Tarikh-i jahangusha-yi Nadiri (Tehran, 1368/1989), p. 376.
44. F. Leandro di S. Cecilia, Persia, o sia secondo viaggio (Rome, 1753), pp. 186-87.
45. James Morier, A Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor to Constantinople in the Years 1808 and 1809 (London, 1812), p. 170. The nokara khaneh (naqqarah khanah) is the music house.
46. Sir Robert Kerr Porter, Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, 2 vols. (London, 1821-22), 1:408.
47. James A. Spilman, Journey through Russia into Persia in the Year 1739 (London, 1742), p. 18.
48. Jonas Hanway, An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea: With a Journal of Travels through Russia into Persia, 4 vols. (London, 1753), 1:226. William Francklin, Observations Made on a Tour from Bengal to Persia in the Years 1786-87 (London, 1788), p. 76.
49. Jonas Hanway, An Historical Account of the British Trade over the Caspian Sea: With a Journal of Travels through Russia into Persia, 4 vols. (London, 1753), 1:226. William Francklin, Observations Made on a Tour from Bengal to Persia in the Years 1786-87 (London, 1788), p. 76.
50. India Office Records, London, G/19/25, Report by Manesty and Jones on trade in the Persian Gulf, 15 August 1790, fols. 219, 255.
51. J. S. Buckingham, Travels in Assyria, Media, and Persia, 2 vols. (London, 1830), 1:130.
52. Ibid., 1:131.
53. Ibid., 1:194.
54. Ibid., 1:380.
55. C. Bélanger, Voyage aux Indes orientales par le nord de l'Europe, les provinces du Caucase, la Géorgie, l'Arménie, et la Perse pendant les années 1825-1829, 3 vols. and 3 atlases (Paris, 1833-38), 2:2:342.
56. See Michel Tuchscherer, "Café et cafés dans l'Egypte ottomane, XVIIe-XVIIIe siècles," in Contributions au thème du et des cafés, ed. Desmet-Grégoire, p. 55.
57. Nicolas de Khanikoff, "Mémoire sur la partie méridionale de l'Asie centrale," Recueil de voyages et de mémoires publiés pour la Société de Géographie 7 (1861): 330.
58. Gaspard Drouville, Voyage en Perse fait en 1812 et 1813, 2 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1819-20), 1:78.
59. P. Amédée Jaubert, Voyage en Arménie et en Perse fait dans les années 1805 et 1806 (Paris, 1821), p. 206.
60. J. M. Tancoigne, A Narrative of a Journey into Persia, trans. from French (London, 1820), p. 101.
61. Sir W. Ouseley, Travels in Various Countries in the East, More Particularly Persia, 3 vols. (London, 1819), 1:189, 267.
62. M. von Kotzbue, Narrative of a Journey into Persia in the Suite of the Imperial Russian Embassy in the Year 1817 (London, 1819), pp. 167, 235, 294, 297.
63. M. L. Sheil, Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia (London, 1856), p. 133.
64. E. Flandin and P. Coste, Voyage en Perse de M. M. Eugène Flandin, peintre, et Pascal Coste, architecte, 1840-41, 2 vols. (Paris, 1850-54), 2:55-56.
65. Comte de Gobineau, Trois ans en Asie (Paris, 1859), p. 168.
66. T. M. Lycklama a Nijeholt, Voyage en Russe, au Caucase, et en Perse, 4 vols. (Paris, 1872-75), 2:358.
67. Carla Serena, Les hommes et les choses en Perse (Paris, 1883), p. 67.
68. Porter, Travels, 2:41.
69. Drouville, Voyage, 1:68-69.
70. Peter Gordon, Fragment of the Journal of a Tour through Persia in 1820 (London, 1833), p. 100.
71. James B. Fraser, Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces on the Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea (London, 1826), p. 105.
72. Ibid.
73. For nineteenth-century references to tea among the Uzbegs, see M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (London, 1815), p. 470; Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India Overland from England through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistan, 2 vols. (London 1834), 1:54-55; and Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, Being an Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . . in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, 3 vols. (London, 1834), 1:221, 2:436-37. See Xavier Hommaire de Hell, Les steppes de la mer caspienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1843), 2:104, for tea drinking among the Kalmyks.
74. For nineteenth-century references to tea among the Uzbegs, see M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (London, 1815), p. 470; Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India Overland from England through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistan, 2 vols. (London 1834), 1:54-55; and Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, Being an Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . . in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, 3 vols. (London, 1834), 1:221, 2:436-37. See Xavier Hommaire de Hell, Les steppes de la mer caspienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1843), 2:104, for tea drinking among the Kalmyks.
75. For nineteenth-century references to tea among the Uzbegs, see M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (London, 1815), p. 470; Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India Overland from England through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistan, 2 vols. (London 1834), 1:54-55; and Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, Being an Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . . in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, 3 vols. (London, 1834), 1:221, 2:436-37. See Xavier Hommaire de Hell, Les steppes de la mer caspienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1843), 2:104, for tea drinking among the Kalmyks.
76. For nineteenth-century references to tea among the Uzbegs, see M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (London, 1815), p. 470; Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India Overland from England through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistan, 2 vols. (London 1834), 1:54-55; and Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, Being an Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . . in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, 3 vols. (London, 1834), 1:221, 2:436-37. See Xavier Hommaire de Hell, Les steppes de la mer caspienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1843), 2:104, for tea drinking among the Kalmyks.
77. For nineteenth-century references to tea among the Uzbegs, see M. Elphinstone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (London, 1815), p. 470; Arthur Conolly, Journey to the North of India Overland from England through Russia, Persia, and Affghaunistan, 2 vols. (London 1834), 1:54-55; and Lieutenant Alexander Burnes, Travels to Bokhara, Being an Account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary, and Persia . . . in the Years 1831, 1832, and 1833, 3 vols. (London, 1834), 1:221, 2:436-37. See Xavier Hommaire de Hell, Les steppes de la mer caspienne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1843), 2:104, for tea drinking among the Kalmyks.
78. See James B. Fraser, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in the Years 1821 and 1822 (London, 1825), p. 489;
79. Conolly, Journey to the North of India, 1:301.
80. M. Freygang, "Account of a Journey to Tabriz," in M. Freygang and F. K. Freygang, Letters from the Caucasus and Georgia, trans. from French (London, 1823), p. 341. This work was apparently first published in German.
81. Ibid., pp. 132, 134-36, 163-65.
82. See J. Klaproth, Voyages au Mont Caucase et en Géorgie, 2 vols. (Paris, 1823), 1:299, 2:266.
83. See J. Klaproth, Voyages au Mont Caucase et en Géorgie, 2 vols. (Paris, 1823), 1:299, 2:266.
84. Fraser, Travels and Adventures, p. 105.
85. William Richard Holmes, Sketches on the Shores of the Caspian (London, 1845), pp. 61, 73, 268.
86. Ibid., p. 282.
87. James B. Fraser, A Winter's journey from Constantinople to Tehran, 2 vols. (London, 1838), 2:151; Fraser, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, pp. 264, 283.
88. James B. Fraser, A Winter's journey from Constantinople to Tehran, 2 vols. (London, 1838), 2:151; Fraser, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, pp. 264, 283.
89. Fraser, Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan, p. 603.
90. Edward Sterling, The Journals of Edward Sterling in Persia and Afghanistan 1828-1829, ed. Jonathan L. Lee (Naples, 1991), p. 179.
91. J. H. Stocqeler (pseudonym of J. H. Siddon), Fifteen Months Pilgrimage through Untrodden Tracts of Khuzistan and Persia, 2 vols. (London, 1832), 1:119, 121.
92. Baron C. de Bode, Travels in Luristan and Arabistan, 2 vols. (London, 1845), 2:108.
93. W. Hollingbery, A Journal of Observations Made during the British Embassy to the Court of Persia in the Years 1799-1801 (Calcutta, 1814), p. 50.
94. Edward Scott Waring, A Tour to Sheeraz (London, 1817), p. 8.
95. Henry Pottinger, Travels to Beloochistan and Sinde (London, 1816), pp. 210-11.
96. Claudius James Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan, 2 vols. (London, 1816), 1:203.
97. Stocqeler, Pilgrimage, 1:75, 99-100, noted that coffee in Behbehan was not drunk but eaten as "a kind of bon-bon" in a "powdered and roasted state, without having had any connexion with hot water." Fine coffee in Iran was commonly eaten in this manner. See G. Troll, "Die Genussmittel des Orients: Kaffee," Österreichische Monatschrift für den Orient 16 (1890): 59.
98. Stocqeler, Pilgrimage, 1:75, 99-100, noted that coffee in Behbehan was not drunk but eaten as "a kind of bon-bon" in a "powdered and roasted state, without having had any connexion with hot water." Fine coffee in Iran was commonly eaten in this manner. See G. Troll, "Die Genussmittel des Orients: Kaffee," Österreichische Monatschrift für den Orient 16 (1890): 59.
99. William Ashton Shepherd, From Bombay to Bushire, and Bussora (London, 1857), pp. 134-135, 148.
100. Stocqeler, Pilgrimage, pp. 213-14.
101. Schivelbusch, Tastes of Paradise, p. 83.
102. Hélène Desmet, "Approches méthodologiques pour l'étude des cafés dans les sociétés du Proche-Orient," in Contributions au thème du et des cafés, ed. Desmet-Grégoire, p. 35.
103. Richard Wilbraham, Travels in the Transcaucasian Provinces of Russia (London, 1839), p. 466.
104. Ibid., p. 179.
105. Tancoigne, Narrative, p. 175; Porter, Travels, 1:241.
106. Tancoigne, Narrative, p. 175; Porter, Travels, 1:241.
107. Robert B. M. Binning, A Journal of Two Years' Travel in Persia, Ceylon, etc., 2 vols. (London, 1857), 1:317.
108. Sir John Malcolm, Sketches of Persia from the Journals of a Traveller in the East (Philadelphia, 1828), pp. 79-80.
109. Lycklama a Nijeholt, Voyage, 2:105, 243.
110. Jacob E. Polak, Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1865), 2:265.
111. Firaydun Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran, 4th ed. (Tehran, 1354/1975), pp. 216-18.
112. De Gobineau, Trois ans en Asie, p. 467.
113. 'Abd Allah Mustaufi, Sharh-i zindigani-yi man ya tarikh-i ijtima'i va idari-yi daurah-i qajar, 3 vols. (Tehran, 1360/1981), 1:182.
114. The American missionary Samuel Wilson, whose observations were made in the 1890s, noted that tea in a teahouse cost half a cent. See S. G. Wilson, Persian Life and Customs (London, 1900), p. 253.
115. See Tapper, "Blood, Wine and Water," p. 218. For the introduction of idigenous tea cultivation in Iran's Caspian provinces at the turn of the twentieth century, see Thuraya Kazimi, Hajji Muhammad Mima Kashif al-Saltanah, pidar-i chay (Tehran, 1372/1993).
116. See Tapper, "Blood, Wine and Water," p. 218. For the introduction of idigenous tea cultivation in Iran's Caspian provinces at the turn of the twentieth century, see Thuraya Kazimi, Hajji Muhammad Mima Kashif al-Saltanah, pidar-i chay (Tehran, 1372/1993).
117. For the introduction of the habit of sweetening tea in Europe, see Smith, "Complications of the Commonplace."
118. Since the seventeenth century, the Iranian way of drinking tea has been to put a lump of candy sugar between the teeth before imbibing the liquid, which dissolves the sugar as it passes into the mouth. See Père Jacques Villote, S.J., Voyages d'un missionnaire de la Compagnie de Jésus en Turquie, en Perse, en Arabie et en Barbarie (Paris, 1730), pp. 521-25.
119. See Johannes Jacobus Voskuil, "Die Verbreitung von Kaffee in den Niederlanden," in Wandel der Volkskultur, ed. Bringéus et al., pp. 407-28.
120. See Iraj Afshar, "Gushah-i az tarikh-i chay," Ayandeh 17 (1370/1991): 768.
121. R. Mignan, A Winter Journey through Russia, the Caucasian Alps, and Georgia, 2 vols. (London, 1839), 1:175-76.
122. J. Perkins, A Residence of Eight Years in Persia, among the Nestorian Christians: with Notices of the Muhammedans (Andover, Mass., 1843), p. 270.
123. Polak, Persien, 2:265.
124. Mirza Muhammad Hasan Khan I'timad al-Saltanah, Kitob al-ma'athir va al-athar (Tehran, 1306/1888-89), pp. 101-102.
125. See Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 5 (Costa Mesa, Cal., 1992), s.v. "Chay," p. 103.
126. See Afshar, "Gushah-i az tarikh-i chay," p. 768.
127. F. de Filippi, Note di un viaggio in Persia nel 1862 (Milan, 1865), p. 51.
128. N. G. Kukanova, Ocherki po istorii russko-iranskikh torgovykh otnoshenii v XVII-pervoi polovinie XIX veka (Saransk, 1977), p. 205; and M. v. Bulmerincq, "Die Jahrmärkte Russlands, insbesondere jener von Nischni-Nowgorod," Globus, illustrierte Zeitschrift für Länder-und Völkerkunde 6 (1864): 298-301; and Anne Lincoln Fitzpatrick, The Great Russian Fair: Nizhnii Novgorod, 1840-90 (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 82, 91.
129. N. G. Kukanova, Ocherki po istorii russko-iranskikh torgovykh otnoshenii v XVII-pervoi polovinie XIX veka (Saransk, 1977), p. 205; and M. v. Bulmerincq, "Die Jahrmärkte Russlands, insbesondere jener von Nischni-Nowgorod," Globus, illustrierte Zeitschrift für Länder-und Völkerkunde 6 (1864): 298-301; and Anne Lincoln Fitzpatrick, The Great Russian Fair: Nizhnii Novgorod, 1840-90 (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 82, 91.
130. N. G. Kukanova, Ocherki po istorii russko-iranskikh torgovykh otnoshenii v XVII-pervoi polovinie XIX veka (Saransk, 1977), p. 205; and M. v. Bulmerincq, "Die Jahrmärkte Russlands, insbesondere jener von Nischni-Nowgorod," Globus, illustrierte Zeitschrift für Länder-und Völkerkunde 6 (1864): 298-301; and Anne Lincoln Fitzpatrick, The Great Russian Fair: Nizhnii Novgorod, 1840-90 (Basingstoke, 1990), pp. 82, 91.
131. Nicolaus v. Nassakin, "Von der Messe in Nishni-Nowgorod," Österreichische Monatschrift für den Orient 12 (1886): 168.
132. Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Pelly, "Remarks on the Tribes, Trade and Resources around the Shore Line of the Persian Gulf," Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society 17 (1863-64):55.
133. Mirza Husayn Khan, Jughrafiya-yi Isfahan, ed. Manuchihr Situdah (Tehran, 1342/ 1963), pp. 120-21.
134. Schivelbusch, Tastes of Paradise, pp. 79-85.
135. See John Malcolm, "The Melville Papers," in The Economic History of Iran, 1800-1914, ed. Charles Issawi (Chicago, 1971), p. 264; William Milburn, Oriental Commerce, 2 vols. (London, 1813), 1:123, 129. See also Fraser, Travels and Adventures, p. 371, who stated: "Coffee is, I believe, entirely brought from Arabia by the ports of the Gulf. I do not know if any attempt has been made to introduce this article from other quarters."
136. See John Malcolm, "The Melville Papers," in The Economic History of Iran, 1800-1914, ed. Charles Issawi (Chicago, 1971), p. 264; William Milburn, Oriental Commerce, 2 vols. (London, 1813), 1:123, 129. See also Fraser, Travels and Adventures, p. 371, who stated: "Coffee is, I believe, entirely brought from Arabia by the ports of the Gulf. I do not know if any attempt has been made to introduce this article from other quarters."
137. See John Malcolm, "The Melville Papers," in The Economic History of Iran, 1800-1914, ed. Charles Issawi (Chicago, 1971), p. 264; William Milburn, Oriental Commerce, 2 vols. (London, 1813), 1:123, 129. See also Fraser, Travels and Adventures, p. 371, who stated: "Coffee is, I believe, entirely brought from Arabia by the ports of the Gulf. I do not know if any attempt has been made to introduce this article from other quarters."
138. Jaubert, Voyage, pp. 286-87.
139. Issawi, Economic History, p. 74.
140. Rich, Narrative, 1:305.
141. Pottinger, Travels, p. 226.
142. A. Dupré, Voyage en Perse fait dans les années 1807, 1808, 1809, 2 vols. (Paris, 1819), 2:43.
143. N. G. Kukanova, Russko-iranskaya torgovlya 30-50-e gody XIX veka (Sbornik dokumentov) (Moscow, 1984), pp. 6-7.
144. Conolly, Voyages, 1:347.
145. Mignan, Winter Journey, pp. 175-76.
146. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Johan Schlimmer, Terminologie médico-pharmaceutique et anthropologique français-persane (Tehran, 1874), p. 542.
147. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Johan Schlimmer, Terminologie médico-pharmaceutique et anthropologique français-persane (Tehran, 1874), p. 542.
148. A. S(epsis), "Perse: Du commerce de Tauris," Revue de l'Orient 5 (1844): 133-34.
149. F. A. Bakulin, "Ocherk' vneshnei torgovli Azerbaidzhana 1870-71 gg." Vostochniy Sbornik 1 (1877): 220-21.
150. See Wilbraham, Travels, p. 68. For recent analyses, see Charles Issawi, "The Tabriz-Trabazon Trade 1830-1900," International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1970): 18-27; and Manfred Schneider, Beiträge zur Wirtschaftsstruktur und Wirtschaftsentwicklung Persiens 1850-1900 (Stuttgart, 1990).
151. See Wilbraham, Travels, p. 68. For recent analyses, see Charles Issawi, "The Tabriz-Trabazon Trade 1830-1900," International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1970): 18-27; and Manfred Schneider, Beiträge zur Wirtschaftsstruktur und Wirtschaftsentwicklung Persiens 1850-1900 (Stuttgart, 1990).
152. See Wilbraham, Travels, p. 68. For recent analyses, see Charles Issawi, "The Tabriz-Trabazon Trade 1830-1900," International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1970): 18-27; and Manfred Schneider, Beiträge zur Wirtschaftsstruktur und Wirtschaftsentwicklung Persiens 1850-1900 (Stuttgart, 1990).
153. "Trade Report by Mr. Consul Abbott in 1849-50," in Cities and Trade: Consul Abbott on the Economy and Society of Iran 1847-1866, ed. Abbas Amanat (London, 1983), pp. 91, 107.
154. For the import figures from Russia in the latter part of the century, see Marvin Entner, Russo-Persian Commercial Relations, 1828-1914 (Gainesville, 1965), pp. 10, 66, 70. Tea and coffee imports in 1863 are found in Pelly, "Remarks on the Tribes," p. 47. This source, pp. 54-55, only notes the overland tea connection. For figures of goods imported through the various entry points for the period 1878-82, see also F. Stolze and F. C. Andreas, "Die Handelsverhältnisse Persiens, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Interessen," Ergänzungsheft 77 zu "Petermanns Mittheilungen" (1885): 69-83.
155. For the import figures from Russia in the latter part of the century, see Marvin Entner, Russo-Persian Commercial Relations, 1828-1914 (Gainesville, 1965), pp. 10, 66, 70. Tea and coffee imports in 1863 are found in Pelly, "Remarks on the Tribes," p. 47. This source, pp. 54-55, only notes the overland tea connection. For figures of goods imported through the various entry points for the period 1878-82, see also F. Stolze and F. C. Andreas, "Die Handelsverhältnisse Persiens, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Interessen," Ergänzungsheft 77 zu "Petermanns Mittheilungen" (1885): 69-83.
156. For the import figures from Russia in the latter part of the century, see Marvin Entner, Russo-Persian Commercial Relations, 1828-1914 (Gainesville, 1965), pp. 10, 66, 70. Tea and coffee imports in 1863 are found in Pelly, "Remarks on the Tribes," p. 47. This source, pp. 54-55, only notes the overland tea connection. For figures of goods imported through the various entry points for the period 1878-82, see also F. Stolze and F. C. Andreas, "Die Handelsverhältnisse Persiens, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der deutschen Interessen," Ergänzungsheft 77 zu "Petermanns Mittheilungen" (1885): 69-83.
157. For a discussion of the impact on the trade of southern Iran, see Roger T. Olson, "Persian Gulf Trade and the Agricultural Economy of Southern Iran in the Nineteenth Century," in Continuity and Change in Modern Iran, ed. Michael E. Bonine and Nikki R. Keddie (Albany, 1981), pp. 153-54.
158. Bakulin, "Ocherk' vneshnei torgovli Azerbaidzhana"; and Bakulin, "Ocherk' russkoi torgovli v' Mazandarane i b' Asterabade v' 1871 g.," Vostochniy Sbornik 1 (1877): 277, 289, 300, 302.
159. Bakulin, "Ocherk' vneshnei torgovli Azerbaidzhana"; and Bakulin, "Ocherk' russkoi torgovli v' Mazandarane i b' Asterabade v' 1871 g.," Vostochniy Sbornik 1 (1877): 277, 289, 300, 302.
160. A. M. Petrov, "Foreign Trade of Russia and Britain with Asia in the Seventeenth to Nineteenth Centuries," Modern Asian Studies 21 (1987): 630-31.
161. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Otto Blau, Commerziele Zustände Persiens (Berlin, 1858), p. 143; as well as the report from Tabriz by Sir Henry Rawlinson to the secretary of state for India, 14 November 1859, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, ed. Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1: Russia, 1859-1880, ed. Dominic Lieven (Frederick, Md., 1983), p. 8. Tea imports into Russia doubled in the 1870s as compared to the previous decade. See the import figures in Joseph Schütz, Russlands Samowar und russischer Tee: Kulturgeschichtlicher Aufriss (Regensburg, 1986), p. 28.
162. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Otto Blau, Commerziele Zustände Persiens (Berlin, 1858), p. 143; as well as the report from Tabriz by Sir Henry Rawlinson to the secretary of state for India, 14 November 1859, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, ed. Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1: Russia, 1859-1880, ed. Dominic Lieven (Frederick, Md., 1983), p. 8. Tea imports into Russia doubled in the 1870s as compared to the previous decade. See the import figures in Joseph Schütz, Russlands Samowar und russischer Tee: Kulturgeschichtlicher Aufriss (Regensburg, 1986), p. 28.
163. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Otto Blau, Commerziele Zustände Persiens (Berlin, 1858), p. 143; as well as the report from Tabriz by Sir Henry Rawlinson to the secretary of state for India, 14 November 1859, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, ed. Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1: Russia, 1859-1880, ed. Dominic Lieven (Frederick, Md., 1983), p. 8. Tea imports into Russia doubled in the 1870s as compared to the previous decade. See the import figures in Joseph Schütz, Russlands Samowar und russischer Tee: Kulturgeschichtlicher Aufriss (Regensburg, 1986), p. 28.
164. See Polak, Persien, 2:266; and Otto Blau, Commerziele Zustände Persiens (Berlin, 1858), p. 143; as well as the report from Tabriz by Sir Henry Rawlinson to the secretary of state for India, 14 November 1859, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, ed. Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1: Russia, 1859-1880, ed. Dominic Lieven (Frederick, Md., 1983), p. 8. Tea imports into Russia doubled in the 1870s as compared to the previous decade. See the import figures in Joseph Schütz, Russlands Samowar und russischer Tee: Kulturgeschichtlicher Aufriss (Regensburg, 1986), p. 28.
165. Sir Thomas Edward Gordon, Persia Revisited (London, 1896), p. 17.
166. Entner, Russo-Persian Commercial Relations, p. 72.
167. As of the 1860s Indian tea began to replace Chinese tea in Central Asia. High Russian toll tariffs notwithstanding, tea was increasingly carried to Turkistan by merchants from Kabul and Qandahar. See H. Vambéry, "Die Anglo-russische Theeconcurrenz in Turkestan," Österreichische Monatschrift für den Orient 2 (1876): 106-107. In 1874 a British report claimed that six thousand camel loads worth three million rubles were annually carried into Central Asia from Afghanistan. See "Abstract of Report of Colonel Olukovsky, 14 June 1874," in British Documents, ed. Bourne and Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1, p. 237.
168. As of the 1860s Indian tea began to replace Chinese tea in Central Asia. High Russian toll tariffs notwithstanding, tea was increasingly carried to Turkistan by merchants from Kabul and Qandahar. See H. Vambéry, "Die Anglo-russische Theeconcurrenz in Turkestan," Österreichische Monatschrift für den Orient 2 (1876): 106-107. In 1874 a British report claimed that six thousand camel loads worth three million rubles were annually carried into Central Asia from Afghanistan. See "Abstract of Report of Colonel Olukovsky, 14 June 1874," in British Documents, ed. Bourne and Watt, part 1, series A, vol. 1, p. 237.
169. See Smith and Christian, Bread and Salt, pp. 235-36.
170. See G. Radde and E. Koenig, "Das Ostufer des Pontus und seine kulturelle Entwicklung im Verlaufe der letzten dreissig Jahre," Ergänzungsheft 112 zu "Petermanns Mittheilungen" (1894): 34-35.