Prospects for the development of a black business class in South Africa

Journal of Modern African Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 661-686

  Randall, Duncan James ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BLACK PEOPLE; BUSINESS SECTOR; CAPITAL ACCUMULATION; PRIVATE SECTOR DEVELOPMENT; STATE STRENGTH;

SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 0030417925     PISSN: 0022278X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0022278x00055828     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
2. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
3. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
4. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
5. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
6. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
7. See Paul M. Lubeck (ed.), The African Bourgeoisie: capitalist development in Nigeria, Kenya, and the Ivory Coast (Boulder, CO, 1987); Janet MacGaffey, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987); Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton, 1987); Paul Kennedy, African Capitalism: the struggle for ascendency (Cambridge, 1988); Bruce Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994); David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State and Development (Boulder and London, 1994); and Tom Forrest, The Advance of African Capital: the growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
8. See World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa. From Crisis to Sustainable Growth: a long-term perspective study (Washington, DC, 1989), pp. 9-10, where it is argued that 'highly inefficient industrialization' in Africa has been the result of earlier efforts 'focused on state-led creation of capacity without adequate regard to cost or markets', and what is therefore needed is the 'fostering [of] African entrepreneurship' because 'The private sector holds the key to future industrial growth'.
9. Allan Greenblo, 'Expedient Structures: black investors achieve control with use of establishment funds', in Finance Week (Johannesburg), 21-27 July 1994.
10. According to Sandile Mamela, in The Sunday Independent (Johannesburg), 23 July 1995, p. 25, 'The so-called new establishment of black entrepreneurs is just a tool of the old establishment and a danger to us all'. See also, 'Black Business Empowerment a Sham', in African Business (Johannesburg), June 1995, p. 10, and 'The Unbearable Brightness of Being Black', in Die Suid Afrikaan (Cape Town), 53, May-June 1995, p. 20.
11. According to Sandile Mamela, in The Sunday Independent (Johannesburg), 23 July 1995, p. 25, 'The so-called new establishment of black entrepreneurs is just a tool of the old establishment and a danger to us all'. See also, 'Black Business Empowerment a Sham', in African Business (Johannesburg), June 1995, p. 10, and 'The Unbearable Brightness of Being Black', in Die Suid Afrikaan (Cape Town), 53, May-June 1995, p. 20.
12. According to Sandile Mamela, in The Sunday Independent (Johannesburg), 23 July 1995, p. 25, 'The so-called new establishment of black entrepreneurs is just a tool of the old establishment and a danger to us all'. See also, 'Black Business Empowerment a Sham', in African Business (Johannesburg), June 1995, p. 10, and 'The Unbearable Brightness of Being Black', in Die Suid Afrikaan (Cape Town), 53, May-June 1995, p. 20.
13. Sam Shilowa, 'Quotas are Not the Route to Black Empowerment', in Business Day (Johannesburg), 25 March 1994, and 'Black Economic Empowerment and the RDP', in The Innes Labour Brief (Johannesburg), 5, 4, 1994, p. 7.
14. Sam Shilowa, 'Quotas are Not the Route to Black Empowerment', in Business Day (Johannesburg), 25 March 1994, and 'Black Economic Empowerment and the RDP', in The Innes Labour Brief (Johannesburg), 5, 4, 1994, p. 7.
15. Sam Shilowa, 'On Black Economic Empowerment', speech delivered at the Black Economic Empowerment Conference, Sandton, 17-18 March 1994, p. 2.
16. Ebrahim Patel, 'Black Economic Empowerment: a trade union view', in The Innes Labour Brief, 3, 1, 1991, p. 70.
17. Mamela, loc. cit.
18. From a satirical piece by three consultants using the nom de plume Cecil John, 'How We Whites have had You for Suckers', in Business Day, 26 July 1995.
19. For an exception to the rule, see Forrest, op. cit. pp. 249-50, for evidence that 'substantial private productive accumulation' has occurred in Nigeria, particularly in Igboland where 'access to the state for the purpose of accumulation has generally played a smaller role'. See also those writers who analysed developments in Kenya during the 1970s, for example: Nicola Swainson, 'The Rise of a National Bourgeoisie in Kenya', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 8, January-April 1977, pp. 39-55, and The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1981-1977 (London, 1980), as well as Colin Leys, 'Capitalist Accumulation, Class Formation and Dependency: the significance of the Kenyan case', in Socialist Register (London), 1978.
20. For an exception to the rule, see Forrest, op. cit. pp. 249-50, for evidence that 'substantial private productive accumulation' has occurred in Nigeria, particularly in Igboland where 'access to the state for the purpose of accumulation has generally played a smaller role'. See also those writers who analysed developments in Kenya during the 1970s, for example: Nicola Swainson, 'The Rise of a National Bourgeoisie in Kenya', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 8, January-April 1977, pp. 39-55, and The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1981-1977 (London, 1980), as well as Colin Leys, 'Capitalist Accumulation, Class Formation and Dependency: the significance of the Kenyan case', in Socialist Register (London), 1978.
21. For an exception to the rule, see Forrest, op. cit. pp. 249-50, for evidence that 'substantial private productive accumulation' has occurred in Nigeria, particularly in Igboland where 'access to the state for the purpose of accumulation has generally played a smaller role'. See also those writers who analysed developments in Kenya during the 1970s, for example: Nicola Swainson, 'The Rise of a National Bourgeoisie in Kenya', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 8, January-April 1977, pp. 39-55, and The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1981-1977 (London, 1980), as well as Colin Leys, 'Capitalist Accumulation, Class Formation and Dependency: the significance of the Kenyan case', in Socialist Register (London), 1978.
22. For an exception to the rule, see Forrest, op. cit. pp. 249-50, for evidence that 'substantial private productive accumulation' has occurred in Nigeria, particularly in Igboland where 'access to the state for the purpose of accumulation has generally played a smaller role'. See also those writers who analysed developments in Kenya during the 1970s, for example: Nicola Swainson, 'The Rise of a National Bourgeoisie in Kenya', in Review of African Political Economy (Sheffield), 8, January-April 1977, pp. 39-55, and The Development of Corporate Capitalism in Kenya, 1981-1977 (London, 1980), as well as Colin Leys, 'Capitalist Accumulation, Class Formation and Dependency: the significance of the Kenyan case', in Socialist Register (London), 1978.
23. Biersteker, op. cit. pp. 115, 120, and 224.
24. Ankie Hoogvelt, 'Indigenisation and Foreign Capital: industrialisation in Nigeria', in Review of African Political Economy, 14, January-April 1979, p. 62.
25. Republic of Kenya, Development Report, 1989-1993 (Nairobi, 1989), quoted in David Himbara, 'The Failed Africanization of Commerce and Industry in Kenya', in World Development (Oxford), 22, 3, 1994, p. 478.
26. Republic of Kenya, Development Report, 1989-1993 (Nairobi, 1989), quoted in David Himbara, 'The Failed Africanization of Commerce and Industry in Kenya', in World Development (Oxford), 22, 3, 1994, p. 478.
27. See David Himbara, 'Myths and Realities of Kenyan Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 31, 1, March 1993, pp. 93-107, and op. cit. 1994.
28. See David Himbara, 'Myths and Realities of Kenyan Capitalism', in The Journal of Modern African Studies (Cambridge), 31, 1, March 1993, pp. 93-107, and op. cit. 1994.
29. Mike Sarakinsky, 'The Changing Urban African Class Structure in South Africa, 1970-1985', MA thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1987, pp. 40-2.
30. In the early 19805, up to 50 per cent of the council members in Sebokeng, Tembisa, and Mamelodi townships were business representatives, according to Sarah Keeble, 'The Expansion of Black Business into the South African Economy with Specific Reference to the Initiatives of the National African Federated Chambers of Commerce in the 1970s', MA thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 1981, p. 341.
31. See ibid. pp. 305-9, for details on the damage sustained by black businessmen during the Soweto uprising.
32. Portfolio of Black Business (Johannesburg, 1993), p. 50.
33. Ibid. 1994, p. 243.
34. Ibid. 1995, p. 120.
35. 'Fikile Bam: profile', in Business Times (Johannesburg), 25 October 1994.
36. 'Profile on Kagiso Publishers', in Enterprise (Johannesburg), December 1994, p. 91.
37. Portfolio of Black Business, 1995, p. 120.
38. The South African Directory of Black Managers (Johannesburg, 1995). p. 89.
39. 'The Sullivan Code', in African Business, April 1986.
40. The South African Directory of Black Managers, 1995, p. 30.
41. Drawn from profiles of the three most prominent black consultancies, Reuel Khoza's Coordinated Management Consulting, Eric Mafuna's Consumer Behaviour, and Don Mkhwanazi's TNS Management and Marketing Renaissance, in Enterprise 200: a survey of black business in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1994).
42. The South African Directory of Black Managers, 1994, P. 14, and 1995, p. 14.
43. The South African Directory of Black Managers, 1994, P. 14, and 1995, p. 14.
44. 'Mkhwanazi Grapples with Dream of Change: profile of TNS Management and Marketing Renaissance cc', in Enterprise 200: a survey of black business in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1995), P. 55.
45. Interview with Attie du Plessis, Executive Director of Sankorp, 5 December 1995.
46. Interview with Dr Enos Mabuza, Deputy Chairman of New Africa Investments Limited, Director of Metropolitan Life, South African Breweries, Anglovaal, Standard Bank Investment Corporation, and De Loitte and Touche, 13 December 1995.
47. Interview with Eric Molobi, Executive Director of Kagiso Trust, Chairman of Kagiso Trust Investments, Kagiso Publishers, and Kagiso Khulani Supervision Services, and Director of First National Bank Holdings, Southern Life Association, and Telkom SA, 12 December 1995.
48. 'Lot Ndlovu, Executive Director of the Nedcor Group', in Enterprise, December 1994.
49. Interview with Gaby Magomola, Deputy Chairman of Afrilink, 12 December 1995.
50. Interview with Jan Erasmus, Founder and Executive Chairman of SegeAlliance, 30 November 1995, on his joint venture in XB Holdings with Moss Nxumalo.
51. Interview with Giel Muller, Managing Director of SegeAlliance and XB Holdings, 1 December 1995.
52. Ferial Haffajee, 'ANC Companies Run Into Cash Crisis', in The Weekly Mail (Johannesburg), 9-15 July 1993.
53. Interview with Jacques Magliolo, 11 July 1995.
54. Ferial Haffajee, 'Something Fishy about Thebe's Deal', in The Weekly Mail, 11-17 June 1993.
55. Iden Wetherell, 'The New Gatekeepers and their Golden Keys', in ibid. 17-23 September 1993.
56. Interview with André du Chenne, Managing Director, Inland Region, Kagiso Khulani Supervision Food Services, 13 December 1995.
57. Interview with Johnson Njeke, Managing Director of Kagiso Trust Investments, 11 December 1995.
58. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
59. Interview with Piet Scholtz, Director of Kagiso Publishers, 19 December 1995.
60. Interview with Fani Titi, Executive Director, Kagiso Trust Investments, 27 November 1995; also du Chenne, 13 December 1995, and Scholtz, 19 December 1995.
61. Interview with Mike Egan, Managing Director of Stêr-Kinekor, 5 December 1995.
62. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
63. See Nicoli Nattrass, 'Politics and Economics in ANC Economic Policy', in African Affairs (London), 93, 372, July 1994, pp. 343-59, and Matthew Kentridge, 'Preparing to Govern: the evolution of ANC economic policy', in The Innes Labour Brief, 4, 2, 1992.
64. See Nicoli Nattrass, 'Politics and Economics in ANC Economic Policy', in African Affairs (London), 93, 372, July 1994, pp. 343-59, and Matthew Kentridge, 'Preparing to Govern: the evolution of ANC economic policy', in The Innes Labour Brief, 4, 2, 1992.
65. African National Congress, The Reconstruction and Development Programme: a policy framework (Johannesburg, 1994), pp. 93 and 115.
66. A survey on affirmative action undertaken by FSA-Contact at the end of 1995 provides evidence of the seriousness with which capitalists are viewing the need to promote the advancement of blacks within their companies: the number in senior positions rose to 9·5 from 2·5 per cent in 1994 (with the proportion of whites falling from 95 to 87 per cent), while those in middle-management positions during the same period increased from 2·5 to 7 per cent. While blacks are proportionally still heavily under-represented, it is important to note that 90 per cent of the companies surveyed had implemented some form of affirmative action. Sven Lunsche, 'Fourfold Rise in Top Black Managers', in Business Times, 21 January 1996, p. 6.
67. Tebello Radebe, '"Fine Balance" for Affirmative Action', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, (Johannesburg), 5 July-12 July 1996, and Duncan Innes, 'Government's Affirmative Action Green Paper is Fair, Flexible and Empowering', in The Sunday Independent, 14 July 1996.
68. Tebello Radebe, '"Fine Balance" for Affirmative Action', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, (Johannesburg), 5 July-12 July 1996, and Duncan Innes, 'Government's Affirmative Action Green Paper is Fair, Flexible and Empowering', in The Sunday Independent, 14 July 1996.
69. Interview with David Moshopalo, Secretary-General of the Federation for African Business and Consumer Services, and member of the Gauteng Tender Board, 15 December 1995.
70. Business Annual, 1995 (Johannesburg, 1995), p. 46.
71. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
72. Tom Lodge, 'South Africa: democracy and development in a post-apartheid South Africa', unpublished paper, p. 8.
73. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
74. Interview with Moshopalo, 15 December 1995.
75. The Reconstruction and Development Programme, pp. 76 and 92.
76. Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC, quoted in Financial Times (London), 28 July 1995.
77. See Roger Matthews, 'Business and Government Ready for Showdown', in Business Day, 11 September 1995. A basic policy framework drawn up by the Department of Trade and Industry was submitted in September 1996 to the National Economic Development and Labour Council (Nedlac) for discussion.
78. John Stewart, 'Benign Discrimination: future competition policy will have to bend purist rules to allow companies previously restricted by race to catch up', in Finance Week, 3-9 September 1994.
79. See 'Appropriation Bill. Debate on Vote No. 24 - Trade and Industry, and Programme 2 of Vote No. 28 - Regional and Land Affairs', in Hansard. Proceedings of the National Assembly (Pretoria), Tuesday, 23 August 1994.
80. Interview with Egan, 5 December 1995.
81. Portfolio of Black Business, 1993, p. 129.
82. Interview with Egan, 5 December 1995.
83. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
84. Haffajee, 'Something Fishy about Thebe's Deal', p. 8, and interview with Magliolo, 11 July 1995.
85. Iden Wetherell, 'The ANC's Backing the Book Business', in The Weekly Mail, 12-19 September 1993.
86. Interview with Litha Nyhonhya, Joint Managing Director, Msele Corporate and Merchant Bank, subsidiary of Thebe Investments, 7 November 1995.
87. 'Cellular Phone Industry: special report', in The Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 8 October 1993; Maureen Sullivan, 'Cellular Phones: dividing the spoils', in ibid. 29 October 1993; Maura Bidoll, 'Cellular Telephones: free to shop around', in ibid. 26 November 1993; Lisa Thornton, 'Who'll Benefit from the Cellular Phone Fracas?', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 8-14 October 1993; and Allan Greenblo, 'Cellular Phones: a compromise for one is...', in Finance Week, 26 October-3 November 1993.
88. 'Cellular Phone Industry: special report', in The Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 8 October 1993; Maureen Sullivan, 'Cellular Phones: dividing the spoils', in ibid. 29 October 1993; Maura Bidoll, 'Cellular Telephones: free to shop around', in ibid. 26 November 1993; Lisa Thornton, 'Who'll Benefit from the Cellular Phone Fracas?', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 8-14 October 1993; and Allan Greenblo, 'Cellular Phones: a compromise for one is...', in Finance Week, 26 October-3 November 1993.
89. 'Cellular Phone Industry: special report', in The Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 8 October 1993; Maureen Sullivan, 'Cellular Phones: dividing the spoils', in ibid. 29 October 1993; Maura Bidoll, 'Cellular Telephones: free to shop around', in ibid. 26 November 1993; Lisa Thornton, 'Who'll Benefit from the Cellular Phone Fracas?', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 8-14 October 1993; and Allan Greenblo, 'Cellular Phones: a compromise for one is...', in Finance Week, 26 October-3 November 1993.
90. 'Cellular Phone Industry: special report', in The Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 8 October 1993; Maureen Sullivan, 'Cellular Phones: dividing the spoils', in ibid. 29 October 1993; Maura Bidoll, 'Cellular Telephones: free to shop around', in ibid. 26 November 1993; Lisa Thornton, 'Who'll Benefit from the Cellular Phone Fracas?', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 8-14 October 1993; and Allan Greenblo, 'Cellular Phones: a compromise for one is...', in Finance Week, 26 October-3 November 1993.
91. 'Cellular Phone Industry: special report', in The Financial Mail (Johannesburg), 8 October 1993; Maureen Sullivan, 'Cellular Phones: dividing the spoils', in ibid. 29 October 1993; Maura Bidoll, 'Cellular Telephones: free to shop around', in ibid. 26 November 1993; Lisa Thornton, 'Who'll Benefit from the Cellular Phone Fracas?', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 8-14 October 1993; and Allan Greenblo, 'Cellular Phones: a compromise for one is...', in Finance Week, 26 October-3 November 1993.
92. Interview with Egan, 5 December 1995.
93. Gaye Davis, 'Politicians Opt to Police Themselves', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 29 September-5 October 1995, and 'How Good is Our Code of Conduct?', in ibid. 31 May-6 June 1996.
94. Gaye Davis, 'Politicians Opt to Police Themselves', in The Weekly Mail and Guardian, 29 September-5 October 1995, and 'How Good is Our Code of Conduct?', in ibid. 31 May-6 June 1996.
95. Interview with Njeke, 11 December 1995.
96. Interview with du Chenne, 13 December 1995.
97. See Jane MacGaffey, 'How to Survive and Become Rich Amidst Devastation: the second economy in Zaire', in African Affairs, 82, 328, July 1983, pp. 351-66, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987), and 'State Deterioration and Capitalist Development: the case of Zaire', in Bruce J. Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994), pp. 189-204.
98. See Jane MacGaffey, 'How to Survive and Become Rich Amidst Devastation: the second economy in Zaire', in African Affairs, 82, 328, July 1983, pp. 351-66, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987), and 'State Deterioration and Capitalist Development: the case of Zaire', in Bruce J. Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994), pp. 189-204.
99. See Jane MacGaffey, 'How to Survive and Become Rich Amidst Devastation: the second economy in Zaire', in African Affairs, 82, 328, July 1983, pp. 351-66, Entrepreneurs and Parasites: the struggle for indigenous capitalism in Zaire (Cambridge, 1987), and 'State Deterioration and Capitalist Development: the case of Zaire', in Bruce J. Berman and Colin Leys (eds.), African Capitalists in African Development (Boulder and London, 1994), pp. 189-204.
100. Hoogvelt, loc. cit. p. 57.
101. Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State, and Development, p. 6.