Crafting democratic control over the military: A comparative analysis of South Korea, Chile and Ghana

Democratization

Volumn 3, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 215-245

  Luckham, Robin ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION; DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION; MILITARY ROLE;

CHILE; KOREA(SOUTH);

EID: 0029857443     PISSN: 13510347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13510349608403477     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. Robin Luckham, 'Democracy and the Military: An Epitaph for Frankenstein's Monster?', Democratization, Vol.3, No.2 (1996). Both that article and this one draw on the author's chapter in a forthcoming book, R. Luckham and G. White (eds.), Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996, forthcoming).
2. Robin Luckham, 'Democracy and the Military: An Epitaph for Frankenstein's Monster?', Democratization, Vol.3, No.2 (1996). Both that article and this one draw on the author's chapter in a forthcoming book, R. Luckham and G. White (eds.), Democratization in the South: The Jagged Wave (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996, forthcoming).
3. However, Herrera G. Arriagada characterizes this as 'tarnished professionalism' based on 'the abusive use, the manipulation in a dictatorial political context of a highly developed professional military tradition and of the values associated with it, - i.e. subordination to political power, obedience, non-deliberation, hierarchy and discipline', in 'The Legal and Institutional Framework of the Armed Forces in Chile', in J.S. Valenzuela (ed.), Military Rule in Chile: Dictatorship and Oppositions (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins, 1986), p.123.
4. C. Hamilton and R. Tanter, 'The Antinomies of Success in South Korea', Journal of International Affairs, Vol.41, No.1 (1987), p.80.
5. B. Gills, 'Korean Capitalism and Democracy', in B. Gills et al. (eds.), Low Intensity Democracy: Political Power in the New World Order (London: Pluto, 1993).
6. For details see S.J. Kim, 'The Rise of the Neo-Mercantile State: Institutional Change in Korea', Pacific Focus, Vol.5, No.1 (1990), p.123 and J. Cotton, 'The Military Factor in South Korean Polities', in V. Selochan (ed.), The Military, the Stale and Development in Asia and the Pacific, (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), p.214.
7. For details see S.J. Kim, 'The Rise of the Neo-Mercantile State: Institutional Change in Korea', Pacific Focus, Vol.5, No.1 (1990), p.123 and J. Cotton, 'The Military Factor in South Korean Polities', in V. Selochan (ed.), The Military, the Stale and Development in Asia and the Pacific, (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), p.214.
8. B. Cumings, 'The Abortive Abertura: South Korea in the Light of Latin American Experience'. New Left Review, 173 (1989), p.14.
9. Far Eastern Economic Review (FEER), 14 March 1991.
10. Hamiliton and Tanter, op. cit.
11. Argued by Cumings, op. cit. and by Gills, op. cit.
12. Argued by Cumings, op. cit. and by Gills, op. cit.
13. FEER. 1 April, 1993, p.25.
14. FEER, 27 May, 1993, p.15.
15. C. S. Lee and H. S. Sohn, 'South Korea 1993: The Year of the Great Reform', Asian Survey, Vol.34, No.1 (1994), pp.3-4.
16. FEER, 15 Oct., 1992.
17. FEER, 26 Sept., 1991.
18. K.L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989), Ch.5. Similar appraisals are made by Herrera G. Arriagada, Pinochet: The Politics of Power, (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1988) and A Valenzuela, 'Chile: Origins, Consolidation and Breakdown of a Democratic Regime', in L. Diamond et al (eds.), Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder. C.O: Lynne Rienner, 1980).
19. K.L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989), Ch.5. Similar appraisals are made by Herrera G. Arriagada, Pinochet: The Politics of Power, (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1988) and A Valenzuela, 'Chile: Origins, Consolidation and Breakdown of a Democratic Regime', in L. Diamond et al (eds.), Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder. C.O: Lynne Rienner, 1980).
20. K.L. Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989), Ch.5. Similar appraisals are made by Herrera G. Arriagada, Pinochet: The Politics of Power, (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1988) and A Valenzuela, 'Chile: Origins, Consolidation and Breakdown of a Democratic Regime', in L. Diamond et al (eds.), Politics in Developing Countries: Comparing Experiences with Democracy (Boulder. C.O: Lynne Rienner, 1980).
21. Remmer, ibid., pp.137-42.
22. Arriagada, op. cit., pp167-72 and C. Hunneus, 'From Diarchy to Polyarchy: Prospects for Democracy in Chile', in E. A. Baloyra (ed.), Comparing New Democracies, Transition and Consolidation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), pp.116-18.
23. Arriagada, op. cit., pp167-72 and C. Hunneus, 'From Diarchy to Polyarchy: Prospects for Democracy in Chile', in E. A. Baloyra (ed.), Comparing New Democracies, Transition and Consolidation in Mediterranean Europe and the Southern Cone (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987), pp.116-18.
24. Hunneus, op. cit., p.120.
25. See for instance M.A. Garretón, The Chilean Political Process (Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman, 1989), Chs.3 and 6.
26. Ibid., Part III.
27. See H.K. Kim and G. Geisse, 'The Political Economy of Outward Liberalisation: Chile and South Korea in Comparative Perspective', Asian Perspective, Vol.11, No.2 (1988), pp.35-68.
28. T. Scheetz, 'The Evolution of Public Sector Expenditures: Changing Political Priorities in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Peru', Journal of Peace Research, Vol.29, No.2 (1992), pp.180-3.
29. Garretón, op. cit., p.128.
30. Latin American Research Reports- Southern Cone (LARR-SC), 15 March, 1990. See also Oppenheim, op. cit., p.192.
31. Latin American Research Reports- Southern Cone (LARR-SC), 15 March, 1990. See also Oppenheim, op. cit., p.192.
32. B. Loveman, 'Mision Cumplida?: Civil Military Relations and the Chilean Political Transition', Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol.33, No.3 (1991), p.35.
33. Herrera G. Arriagada and C. Graham, 'Chile: Sustaining Adjustment During Democratic Transition', in S. Haggard and S. B. Webb, Voting for Reform, Democracy, Liberalization and Economic Adjustment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp.250-5.
34. Loveman, op. cit., p.42.
35. See Loveman, ibid, for details.
36. Independence day speech cited in Latin American Research Report (LARR), 18 Oct., 1990.
37. Latin American Weekly Report (LAWR), 23 Sept., 1993, p.443.
38. Even so, individual trials have continued in the courts, though so far relatively few military perpetrators of such crimes have been convicted and imprisoned.
39. LAWR, 13 Oct., 1994.
40. M.A. Garretón, 'Redemocratization in Chile', Journal of Democracy, Vol.6, No.1 (1995), pp.154-6.
41. See R. Luckham, 'Militarization in Africa', SIPRI Yearbook 1985 (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 1985), Ch.9.
42. This is the central theme of N. Chazan, An Anatomy of Ghanaian Politics: Managing Political Recession, 1969-1972, (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1983).
43. On the reasons for this breakdown see S. Baynham, 'Civil Military Relations in Ghana's Second Republic', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol.4, Nos.1-2 (1984-85), E. Hutchful, 'Organizational Instability in African Military Forces: the Case of the Ghanaian Army', International Social Science Journal, Vol.31, No.4, (1979) and E. Hansen and P.Collins, 'The Army, the State and the "Rawlings Revolution"' African Affairs, Vol.79, No.314 (1980).
44. On the reasons for this breakdown see S. Baynham, 'Civil Military Relations in Ghana's Second Republic', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol.4, Nos.1-2 (1984-85), E. Hutchful, 'Organizational Instability in African Military Forces: the Case of the Ghanaian Army', International Social Science Journal, Vol.31, No.4, (1979) and E. Hansen and P.Collins, 'The Army, the State and the "Rawlings Revolution"' African Affairs, Vol.79, No.314 (1980).
45. On the reasons for this breakdown see S. Baynham, 'Civil Military Relations in Ghana's Second Republic', Journal of Contemporary African Studies, Vol.4, Nos.1-2 (1984-85), E. Hutchful, 'Organizational Instability in African Military Forces: the Case of the Ghanaian Army', International Social Science Journal, Vol.31, No.4, (1979) and E. Hansen and P.Collins, 'The Army, the State and the "Rawlings Revolution"' African Affairs, Vol.79, No.314 (1980).
46. Rawlings' broadcast, 1 Jan. 1982 cited by K.G. Foison, 'Ideology, Revolution and Development - The Years of J.J. Rawlings', in E. Gyimah-Boadi (ed.), Ghana Under PNDC Rule (Dakar: CODESRIA, 1993), p.79.
47. Broadcast of 5 Jan. 1982 cited by J. C. Ahiakpor, 'Rawlings, Economic Policy Reform and the Poor: Consistency/Betrayal?', Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol.29, No.4 (1991), p.588.
48. K.Y. Fosu, 'Domestic Public Policy and Ghana's Agriculture, 1982-89', in Gyimah-Boadi (ed.), op. cit.; nevertheless due to large overall public expenditure increases, military spending declined as a proportion of the current budget and only slightly increased its share of the capital budget.
49. J. Haynes, 'Inching Towards Democracy: the Ghanaian "Revolution", the International Monetary Fund and the Politics of the Possible', in R. Cohen and H. Goulbourne (eds.), Democracy and Socialism in Africa (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1991), p.450.
50. For detailed analysis see E. Gyimah-Boadi and A.Essuman-Johnson, 'The PNDC and Organised Labour: the Anatomy of Political Control', in Gyimah-Boadi (ed.), op. cit.
51. This is the view shared by among others, T.M. Callaghy, 'Lost Between State and Market: the Politics of Economic Adjustment in Ghana, Zambia and Nigeria', in J.M.Nelson (ed.), Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in the Third World, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990) and R.Jeffries, 'The State, Structural Adjustment and Good Government in Africa', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol.31, No.1 (1993).
52. This is the view shared by among others, T.M. Callaghy, 'Lost Between State and Market: the Politics of Economic Adjustment in Ghana, Zambia and Nigeria', in J.M.Nelson (ed.), Economic Crisis and Policy Choice: The Politics of Adjustment in the Third World, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990) and R.Jeffries, 'The State, Structural Adjustment and Good Government in Africa', Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol.31, No.1 (1993).
53. K. Boafo-Arthur, 'Ghana's External Relations since 31 December 1981', in Gyimah-Boadi (ed.), op. cit.
54. D.M. Green, 'Structural Adjustment and Politics in Ghana', Trans Africa Forum, Vol.8, No.2 (1991), p.70.
55. Ahiakpor, op. cit, p.584.
56. For a critical view see R.H. Green, 'Ghana: Progress Problematics and Limitations of the Success Story', IDS Bulletin, Vol.19, No.1 (1988). On the other hand R. Jeffries' survey of 'Urban Popular Attitudes Towards the Economic Recovery Programme and the PNDC Government in Ghana', African Affairs, Vol.91, No.363 (1992) concludes that most of his urban sample, though believing that their real incomes had declined, felt that their economic plight would have been still worse without the ERP.
57. For a critical view see R.H. Green, 'Ghana: Progress Problematics and Limitations of the Success Story', IDS Bulletin, Vol.19, No.1 (1988). On the other hand R. Jeffries' survey of 'Urban Popular Attitudes Towards the Economic Recovery Programme and the PNDC Government in Ghana', African Affairs, Vol.91, No.363 (1992) concludes that most of his urban sample, though believing that their real incomes had declined, felt that their economic plight would have been still worse without the ERP.
58. Described in fascinating detail by E. Hutchful, 'Organzational Decomposition and Junior Ranks' Political Action in Ghana', in E. Hutchful and A. Bathily, The Military and Militarization in Africa (Dakar: CODESRIA, 1996).
59. J.J. Rawlings, The New Direction. Selected Speeches of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings, I January-31 December 1986 (Accra: Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1986), p.80.
60. In interviews with the author in August 1994, Ghanaian officials claimed there was no explicit political conditionality in terms of aid being promised in exchange for democratic reforms. Rather it was a case of their reading the political signals, for example, in the relevant speeches by the British Foreign Secretary and Minister of Overseas Development.
61. R.Jeffries and C. Thomas, 'The Ghanaian Elections of 1992', African Affairs, Vol.92, No.368 (1993), p.336.
62. The opposition's case is documented in New Patriotic Party, The Stolen Verdict (Accra: New Patriotic Party, 1994); Jeffries and Thomas, op. cit. argue that its claims are exaggerated.
63. The opposition's case is documented in New Patriotic Party, The Stolen Verdict (Accra: New Patriotic Party, 1994); Jeffries and Thomas, op. cit. argue that its claims are exaggerated.
64. Most of these are documented in Jeffries and Thomas, op. cit.
65. West Africa, 10-16 Jan., 1993, pp.17-18; see also West Africa, 22-28 March and 5-11 April 1993.
66. West Africa, 10-16 Jan., 1993, pp.17-18; see also West Africa, 22-28 March and 5-11 April 1993.
67. West Africa, 10-16 Jan. 1993, p.15.
68. Speech at state opening of Parliament, cited in West Africa, 16-22 May 1994.
69. Details of reorganization of security services in Africa Confidential, 21 Jan. 1994.
70. The view taken by the present Chief of Defence Staff who is a strong advocate of greater transparency and public discussion of defence and military matters: interview with the author, Aug. 1994.
71. National Commission for Democracy, Evolving a True Democracy. Summary of the NCD's Work Towards the Establishment of a New Democratic Order, Report Presented to the PNDC (Accra: National Commission for Democracy, 1991).
72. G. O'Donnell, 'Delegative Democracy', Journal of Democracy. Vol.5, No.1 (1994), pp.55-69.