Double-faced state: Political patronage and the consolidation of democracy in Turkey

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 259-277

  Heper, Metin ^a   Keyman, E Fuat ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0013101935     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263209808701251     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. See Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington: The Eothen Press, 1985), Chapter Two. On military schools, see Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), p.181.
2. See Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington: The Eothen Press, 1985), Chapter Two. On military schools, see Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford University Press, 1961), p.181.
3. Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey, Chapters Three and Four.
4. İlkay Sunar, 'Populism and Patronage: The Demokrat Party and Its Legacy in Turkey', Il Politico, Vol.60 (1990), pp.745-57.
5. Metin Heper, İsmet İnönü: The Making of a Turkish Statesman (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998), Chapter Six. With the exceptions of 1939 and 1949, surpluses were recorded in the budget in the 1933-1949 period, which made possible the importation of intermediate goods. Therefore, there was an impressive average growth rate of 3.6 per cent during this period, which included the World War II years. See Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Göstergeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1977), p.20.
6. Metin Heper, İsmet İnönü: The Making of a Turkish Statesman (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1998), Chapter Six. With the exceptions of 1939 and 1949, surpluses were recorded in the budget in the 1933-1949 period, which made possible the importation of intermediate goods. Therefore, there was an impressive average growth rate of 3.6 per cent during this period, which included the World War II years. See Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, Ekonomik ve Sosyal Göstergeler (Ankara: Devlet Planlama Teşkilati, 1977), p.20.
7. Kemal H. Karpat, 'The Republican People's Party, 1923-1945', in Metin Heper and Jacob Landau (eds.), Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey (London: I. B. Tauris, 1991), p.54.
8. Heper, İsmet İnönü: The Making of a Turkish Statesman, p.175.
9. Ziya Öniş, 'The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey: Etatism to Neoliberalism and Beyond', in Vojtech Mastny and R. Craig Nation (eds.), Turkey Between East and West: New Challenges for a Rising Regional Power (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1996), pp.157, 158.
10. İzak Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', in Leila Frischtak and İzak Atiyas (eds.), Governance, Leadership, and Communication: Building Constituencies for Economic Reform (Washington, D C: The World Bank, 1996), p.287.
11. Öniş, 'The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.157.
12. Metin Heper, 'The State, Political Party and Society in Turkey', Government and Opposition, Vol.25 (Summer 1990), pp.321-33.
13. Leslie L. Roos and Noralou P. Roos, Managers of Modernization: Organizations and Elites in Turkey (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp.168ff.
14. Sabri Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey', in Ernest Gellner and John Waterbury (eds.), Patrons and Clients in Mediterranean Societies (London: Duckworth, 1977), p.106.
15. Ergun Özbudun, 'Turkey: The Politics of Political Clientelism', in S. N. Eisenstadt and René Lemarchand (eds.), Political Clientelism, Patronage and Development (Beverly Hills and London: Sage, 1981), p.252.
16. Ayşe Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', in Luis Roniger and Ayşe Güneş-Ayata (eds.), Democracy, Clientelism and Civil Society (Boulder, Colorado and London: Lynne Rienner, Publishers, 1994), p.61.
17. Ibid., p.53.
18. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', p.284.
19. Öniş, 'The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.169.
20. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', p.287.
21. Özbudun, 'Turkey: The Politics of Political Clientelism', p.253.
22. Ayşe Buǧra, State and Business in Modern Turkey: A Comparative Study (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
23. İlkay Sunar, 'The Politics of State Interventionism in "Populist" Egypt and Turkey', in Ayşe Öncü, Çaǧlar Keyder and Saad Eddin Ibrahim (eds.), Developmentalism and Beyond: Society and Politics in Egypt and Turkey (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1994), p.98.
24. İzak Atiyas and Şerif Sayin, Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapilanma Önerisine Doǧru (Istanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Sosyal Etüdler Vakfi, 1996), p.27 and Metin Heper, 'Interest-Group Politics in Post-1980 Turkey: Lingering Monism', in Metin Heper (ed.), Strong State and Economic Interest Groups: The Post-1980 Turkish Experience (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1991), pp.163-76. In Turkey, there is an Economic and Social Council, but it is no more than an advisory body and not much attention is paid to its advice.
25. İzak Atiyas and Şerif Sayin, Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapilanma Önerisine Doǧru (Istanbul: Türkiye Ekonomik ve Sosyal Etüdler Vakfi, 1996), p.27 and Metin Heper, 'Interest-Group Politics in Post-1980 Turkey: Lingering Monism', in Metin Heper (ed.), Strong State and Economic Interest Groups: The Post-1980 Turkish Experience (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1991), pp.163-76. In Turkey, there is an Economic and Social Council, but it is no more than an advisory body and not much attention is paid to its advice.
26. Kamran İnan, Siyasetin İçinden (Istanbul: Milliyet Yayinlari, 1995), p.35.
27. Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey', p.260; Ayşe Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', pp.54, 55ff.
28. Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey', p.260; Ayşe Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', pp.54, 55ff.
29. Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey', p.265.
30. Atiyas and Sayin, Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapilanma Önerisine Doǧru, p.29.
31. Gökhan Çapoǧlu, Türkiye'de Siyasi Tikanikliǧi Aşmak İçin (Ankara: Stratejik Araştirmalar Vakfi, 1994), p.18.
32. Ibid., pp.27, 43.
33. Öniş, 'The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.159. The growth rates of 12.8, 11.9 and 11.2 per cent were recorded in 1951, 1952 and 1953, respectively.
34. İnan, Siyasetin İçinden, p.36.
35. Ian Budge and Hans Keman, Parties and Democracy: Coalition Formation and Government Functioning in Twenty States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
36. Metin Heper and Selçuk Sancar, 'Is Legal-Rational Bureaucracy a Pre-Requisite for a Rational-Productive Bureaucracy?: The Case of Turkey', Administration and Society, Vol.30 (May 1998), pp.143-65.
37. İlter Turan, 'Stages of Political Development in the Turkish Republic', in Perspectives on Democracy in Turkey, Üstün Ergüder, Ersin Kalaycioǧlu, Ergun Özbudun and İlter Turan, contributors (Ankara: Turkish Political Association, 1988), p.91 and İzak Atiyas, 'The Effect of the State's Presence in the Economy on Politics: Notes on the Reform of the State', a Paper presented at the 'Fifth National Conference on Quality in General and Political Quality in Particular', 13-14 November 1996, Istanbul.
38. Atiyas, 'The Effect of the State's Presence in the Economy on Politics: Notes on the Reform of the State', p.338.
39. Atiyas and Sayin, Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapilanma Önerisine Doǧru, p.28.
40. Çapoǧlu, Türkiye'de Siyasi Tikanikliǧi Aşmak İçin, pp.54-5.
41. Erdoǧan Yildirim, Türkiye'de Siyaset Süreci ve Profesyonel Siyasette Benliǧin Kurulmasi: SHP Örneǧi (Ankara: Ark Yayinevi, 1995), pp.130-6.
42. Gökhan Çapoǧlu, Yepyeni Bir Türkiye İçin (Ankara: Anadolu Stratejik Araştirmalar Vakfi, 1997), p.38.
43. İnan, Siyasetin İçinden, pp.42-4.
44. Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey, Chapter Five.
45. Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', p.59; Metin Heper, 'Negative Bureaucratic Politics in a Modernizing Context: The Turkish Case', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.1 (1977), pp.65-84.
46. Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', p.59; Metin Heper, 'Negative Bureaucratic Politics in a Modernizing Context: The Turkish Case', Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.1 (1977), pp.65-84.
47. Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey, Chapter Five.
48. Sunar, 'The Politics of State Intervention in "Populist" Egypt and Turkey', p.101.
49. Feride Acar, 'The True Path Party, 1983-1989', in Metin Heper and Jacob Landau (eds.), Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, pp.190-5.
50. In the post-1965 period, except the early 1970s when its then leader Bülent Ecevit had its charisma at its peak, the CHP, too, gradually adopted patronage politics, as a consequence of its repeated failures at the polls. See Sayari, 'Political Patronage in Turkey', p.111.
51. For the DP period, see John Waterbury, 'Export-Led Growth and the Center-Right Coalition in Turkey', Comparative Politics, Vol.24 (January 1992), p.129.
52. Avner Levy, 'The Justice Party, 1961-1980', in Heper and Landau, Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, pp.141, 142.
53. Güneş-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', p.54.
54. Öniş, 'The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.159.
55. Sunar, 'The Politics of State Intervention in 'Populist' Egypt and Turkey', p.104.
56. Joel S. Migdal, Strong States and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p.22.
57. Ziya Öniş, 'International Context, Income Distribution and State Power in Late Industrialization: Turkey and South Korea in Comparative Perspective', New Perspectives on Turkey (Istanbul), Vol.13 (Fall 1995), p.26.
58. Üstün Ergüder, 'The Motherland Party, 1983-1989', in Heper and Landau, Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, p.156.
59. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', p.292.
60. Sabri Sayari, 'Political Parties, Party Systems, and Economic Reforms: The Turkish Case', Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol.31 (Winter 1996/97), p.35
61. Cevat Karataş, 'Public Debt, Taxation System and Government Spending Changes in Turkey, 1980-1992', Journal of Economics and Administrative Studies (Istanbul), Vol.6 (1992), p.47.
62. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', p.293.
63. Ziya Öniş, 'Globalization and Financial Blow-Ups in the Semi-Periphery: Perspectives on Turkey's Financial Crisis of 1994', New Perspectives on Turkey, Vol.15 (Fall 1996), p.7.
64. Ergüder, 'The Motherland Party, 1983-1989', in Heper and Landau, Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, pp.155ff.
65. Işin Çelebi, Aykut Toros and Necati Aras, Siyasette Kilitlenme ve Çözüm (Istanbul: Milliyet Yayinlari, 1996), p.15.
66. If one of the authors may be allowed a personal note: in those years, Heper once asked a shopkeeper if he liked Özal. The shopkeeper told Heper that he did not like Özal because Özal often took too stern measures in the economy. Then, the shopkeeper paused for a moment and then added: 'But Özal may make a speech on the TV tonight and I would in all probability change my mind.'
67. İnan, Siyasetin İçinden, p.102.
68. Sabri Sayari, 'Politics and Economic Policy Making in Turkey', in Tevfik F. Nas and Mehmet Odekan (eds.), Economics and Politics of Turkish Liberalization (Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 1992).
69. Öniş, The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.160, 166 and idem, 'International Context, Income Distribution and State Power in Late Industrialization: Turkey and South Korea in Comparative Perspective', p.29.
70. Öniş, The State and Economic Development in Contemporary Turkey', p.160, 166 and idem, 'International Context, Income Distribution and State Power in Late Industrialization: Turkey and South Korea in Comparative Perspective', p.29.
71. Waterbury, 'Export-Led Growth and the Center-Right Coalition in Turkey', p.134.
72. Sayari, 'Political Parties, Party Systems, and Economic Reforms: The Turkish Case', p.39.
73. Sunar, 'Populism and Patronage: The Demokrat Party and its Legacy in Turkey', p.756.
74. Betül Uncular, İşte Böyle Bir Meclis, 1983-1991 (Ankara: Bilgi Yayinevi, 1991), p.154.
75. Çelebi et al, Siyasette Kilitlenme ve Çözüm, pp.15-16.
76. Ergüder, 'The Motherland Party, 1983-1989', in Heper and Landau, Political Parties and Democracy in Turkey, p.165.
77. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', p.296.
78. Karataş, 'Public Debt, Taxation System and Government Spending Changes in Turkey, 1980-1992', p.70.
79. Atiyas, 'Uneven Governance and Fiscal Failure: The Adjustment Experience in Turkey', pp.298-9.
80. Çelebi et al., Siyasette Kilitlenme ve Çözüm, p.16.
81. Ziya Öniş, 'The Political Economy of Export-Oriented Industrialization in Turkey', in Çiǧdem Balim, Ersin Kalaycioǧlu, Cevat Karataş, Gareth Winrow and Feroz Yasamee (eds.), Turkey: Political, Social and Economic Challenges in the 1990s (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995), p.123.
82. Günes-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', p.58. Later it was reported that during his first 500 days in office Demirel shook hands with 113,117 persons! Milliyet (Istanbul daily), 15 April 1993.
83. Günes-Ayata, 'Roots and Trends of Clientelism in Turkey', p.58. Later it was reported that during his first 500 days in office Demirel shook hands with 113,117 persons! Milliyet (Istanbul daily), 15 April 1993.
84. Cumhuriyet (Istanbul daily), 12 December 1992. Çiller could not get along with the key higher civil servants, too. She could not put up with those civil servants who disagreed with her openly. There were also claims that at times she asked civil servants to 'doctor' some figures in order to show the performance of the government in a more positive light. She removed a number of civil servants from their posts; some others resigned.
85. Hürriyet (Istanbul daily), 4 March 1992.
86. Milliyet (Istanbul daily), 23 December 1992.
87. Bayram Gazetesi (newspaper published on religious holidays), 12 June 1992. Here Demirel referred to the pre-1987 period when the trade unions faced some legal constraints.
88. Cumhuriyet, 19 January 1992.
89. Öniş, 'Globalization and Financial Blow-Ups in the Semi-Periphery: Perspectives on Turkey's Financial Crisis of 1994', p.10.
90. Ibid., pp.10-11.
91. See, for instance, Milliyet, 8 July 1992.
92. Atiyas and Sayin, Siyasi Sorumluluk, Yönetsel Sorumluluk ve Bütçe Sistemi: Bir Yeniden Yapilanma Önerisine Doǧru, p.29.
93. Çapoǧlu, Yepyeni Bir Türkiye İçin, pp.26-7.
94. Earlier Erbakan's Refah Party had proposed a parliamentary investigation concerning the allegations about Çiller; they voted against their own proposal once they came to power. Before Çiller had agreed to enter a coalition with Erbakan, the other party leaders had turned down Erbakan.
95. According to this policy, profit was permitted but not interest, monopolies were to be eliminated completely, and the income tax was to be replaced by a production tax. See David Shankland, 'The Demise of Republican Turkey's Social Contract', Government and Opposition, Vol.31 (Summer 1996), p.315.
96. It was reported that the costs to the economy of the first round of promises made by Erbakan was half a quadrillion Turkish lira. Hürriyet, 2 July 1996.
97. Millivet, 23 March 1997.
98. Hürriyet, 21 September 1996; Milliyet, 19 July 1996; Sabah, 13 May 1997.
99. Hürriyet, 21 September 1996; Milliyet, 19 July 1996; Sabah, 13 May 1997.
100. Hürriyet, 21 September 1996; Milliyet, 19 July 1996; Sabah, 13 May 1997.
101. Yeni Yüzyil (Istanbul daily), 7 August 1996; Hürriyet, 16 April 1997; Sabah (Istanbul daily), 13 May 1997.
102. Yeni Yüzyil (Istanbul daily), 7 August 1996; Hürriyet, 16 April 1997; Sabah (Istanbul daily), 13 May 1997.
103. Yeni Yüzyil (Istanbul daily), 7 August 1996; Hürriyet, 16 April 1997; Sabah (Istanbul daily), 13 May 1997.
104. At the time, Çiller was Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister. She spent most of her time trying to hold her party together because many members of her party had begun to be disgruntled about the developments in question. She also tried to make Turkey a full member of the European Union but she was not successful in bringing about any progress in that direction. One reason was that she had lost the confidence of Western leaders; in the past she had promised many things to them but had not delivered. Particularly critical here was her statement in the past that for Turkey the Refah Party was a greater threat than the separatist Kurdish organization PKK. and then her decision to enter a coalition government with that party. At some point Çiller even could say that 'politics was at the disposal of religion' (Hürriyet, 21 February 1997).
105. See, for instance, Metin Heper, 'Islam and Democracy in Turkey: Toward a Reconciliation?' Middle East Journal, Vol.51 (Winter 1997), pp.32-45.
106. The view that, in the Third Turkish Republic (from 1980 to the present), the military became increasingly reluctant to take power once more into its own hands is supported by a recent study of the memoirs and statements of the last three chiefs of general staff. See Metin Heper and Aylin Güney, 'The Military in the Third Turkish Republic', Armed Forces and Society, Vol.22 (Summer 1996), pp.619-42.
107. Turkey's 1982 Constitution stipulates that governments are obliged to give priority to the recommendations made by the National Security Council.
108. At the December 1995 national elections, 21 per cent of the voters cast their votes for the Refah Party. According to a survey carried out in 1994, only one-third of the voters of the party voted for that party because the party was a religiously oriented party and there is little doubt that only a small percentage of this group of voters longs for an Islamic state. For an elaboration, see Heper, 'Islam and Democracy in Turkey: Toward a Reconciliation?' pp.35-38.
109. Earlier, Erbakan and Çiller had agreed that this office of prime minister should rotate and that in summer 1998 Çiller should succeed Erbakan.
110. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World, pp.259ff.