The military and democracy in the Third Turkish Republic

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 619-642

  Heper, Metin ^a   Güney, Aylin ^b  

^a BILKENT UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0041729744     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9602200407     Document Type: Review

References (82)

1. Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age, 1300-1600, trans. Norman Itzkowitz and Colin Imber (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973), 65-69.
2. H.A.R. Gibb and Harold Bowen, Islamic Society and the West, Vol. 1 (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), 48.
3. Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Walkington, England: The Eothen Press, 1985), 34.
4. Dankwart A. Rustow, "The Military [:Turkey]," in Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey, eds. Robert E. Ward and Dankwart A. Rustow (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964).
5. Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908-1914. London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 47, 55.
6. On these models, see, inter alia, Eric A. Nordlinger, Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977), 10-18, 21.
7. William Hale, Turkish Politics and the Military (London: Routledge, 1994), 82.
8. Dankwart A. Rustow, "The Army and the Founding of the Turkish Republic," World Politics 11 (1959): 549-550.
9. For this definition of democracy, we draw upon Giovanni Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited: Part Two. The Classical Issues (Chatham, NJ: Chatham House, 1987).
10. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
11. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
12. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
13. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
14. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
15. These developments are delineated, inter alia, in Frank Tachau and Metin Heper, "The State, Politics and the Military in Turkey," Comparative Politics 10 (1983): 17-33; Metin Heper, "The State, the Military and Democracy in Turkey," Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 9 (1987): 52-64 ; Kemal Karpat, "Military Interventions: Army-Civilian Relations in Turkey Before and After 1980," in State, Democracy and the Military: Turkey in the 1980s, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1988); William Hale, "Transitions to Civilian Government in Turkey: The Military Perspective," in ibid; George Harris, "The Role of the Military in Turkey: Guardians or Decision-Makers?" in ibid.' and Ahmet Evin, "Demilitarization and Civilianization of the Regime," in Politics in the Third Turkish Republic, eds. Metin Heper and Ahmet Evin (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994).
16. Hale, Turkish Politics and the Military, 242.
17. The National Security Council is composed of the prime minister, chief of the general staff, the ministers of national defense, internal affairs, and foreign affairs, the commanders of the army, navy, and air force, and the general commander of the gendarmerie, under the chairmanship of the president of the republic. The National Security Council submits to the Council of Ministers its views on making decisions and ensuring necessary coordination with regard to the formulation, establishment, and implementation of the national security policy of the state. The Council of Ministers shall give priority considerations to the decisions of the Council (Article 118 of the 1982 Constitution).
18. On Kenan Evren, we draw upon Kenan Evren, Kenan Evren'in Anilari ("The Memoirs of Kenan Evren"), six volumes (Istanbul: Milliyet Yayinlan, 1990); on Necip Torumtay, upon Org. Necip Torumtay, Orgeneral Torumtay'in Anilari ("The Memoirs of General Torumtay"), (Istanbul: Milliyet Yayinlan, 1994), and on Dogan Güres, upon several issues of Hürriyet (Istanbul daily), Milliyet (Istanbul daily), Cumhuriyet (Istanbul daily), Sabah (Istanbul daily), and Turkish Daily News (Ankara daily), published between 7 December, 1990 and 31 July, 1994.
19. Mehmet Ali Birand, Emret Komutanun! (Istanbul: Karacan Yayinlari, 1986), abridged English translation, Shirts of Steel: An Anatomy of the Turkish Armed Forces, tr. Saliha Paker and Ruth Christie (London: J.B. Tauris, 1991).
20. Mehmet Ali Birand, Emret Komutanun! (Istanbul: Karacan Yayinlari, 1986), abridged English translation, Shirts of Steel: An Anatomy of the Turkish Armed Forces, tr. Saliha Paker and Ruth Christie (London: J.B. Tauris, 1991).
21. Evren, I, 19.
22. Evren, II, 352.
23. Ibid., 352.
24. Evren, IV, 68.
25. Ibid.
26. Evren, III, 131.
27. The founders of the Turkish Republic aimed at a "revolution of values." They wished to substitute a secular society for a religious community. See Şerif Mardin, "Ideology and Religion in the Turkish Revolution," International Journal of Middle East Studies 2 (1971): 197-211.
28. On the National Salvation Party, see Jacob M. Landau, "The National Salvation Party in Turkey," Asian and African Studies 11 (1976): 587-606 and Türker Alkan, "The National Salvation Party in Turkey," in Islam and Politics in the Modern Middle East, eds. Metin Heper and Raphael Israeli (London: Croom Helm, 1984).
29. On the National Salvation Party, see Jacob M. Landau, "The National Salvation Party in Turkey," Asian and African Studies 11 (1976): 587-606 and Türker Alkan, "The National Salvation Party in Turkey," in Islam and Politics in the Modern Middle East, eds. Metin Heper and Raphael Israeli (London: Croom Helm, 1984).
30. Evren, VI, 17.
31. On the Nationalist Action Party, see Jacob M. Landau, "The Nationalist Action Party in Turkey," Journal of Contemporary History 17 (1982): 587-606.
32. This was basically a consequence of the modus vivendi that developed between Evren and less strictly secularist Özal. See Metin Heper, "The Executive in the Third Turkish Republic, 1982-1989," Governance, 3 (1990): 299-319.
33. Evren, IV, 247.
34. On these two versions of representation, we draw upon A.H. Birch, Representation (London: Macmillan, 1971), 15-16. 60-67.
35. Evren, III, 148.
36. Evren, II, 185.
37. Evren, VI, 206.
38. Evren, II, 363.
39. Evren, IV, 381.
40. Evren, III, 46.
41. Evren, II, 363.
42. Evren, VI, 221.
43. Torumtay, 21.
44. Ibid., 36.
45. Ibid., 57.
46. Ibid., 90.
47. Ibid., 88.
48. Ibid., 102.
49. Ibid., 108.
50. Ibid., 90.
51. Turkish Daily News, 4 December 1990.
52. Turkish Daily News, 13 December 1990.
53. Milliyet, 26 September 1992.
54. Turkish Daily News, 19 March 1991.
55. More specifically, the president of the republic represents "the office of the Commander-in-Chief of the Turkish Armed Forces on behalf of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey" (Article 104 of the 1982 Constitution).
56. Hürriyet, 22 December 1992.
57. Milliyet, 6 June 1992.
58. Milliyet, 26 September 1992.
59. Ibid.
60. Milliyet, 19 March 1991.
61. Ibid.
62. Hürriyet, 20 March 1992.
63. Hürriyet, 18 October 1991.
64. Sabah, 25 December 1993.
65. Hürriyet, 2 July 1991.
66. Turkish Daily News, 20 February 1991.
67. Hürriyet, 20 March 1992.
68. Ibid.
69. Turkish Daily News, 12 February 1991.
70. Ibid.
71. Sabah, 25 December 1993.
72. Milliyet, 6 June 1992. The book in question was Hikmet Özdemir, Rejim ve Asker ("The Political Regime and Officer") (Istanbul: Afa Yayinlari, 1989).
73. Sabah, 25 December 1993.
74. Milliyet, 19 March 1991, and Turkish Daily News, 19 March 1991. It must be noted in passing that in a nationwide opinion survey carried out in October 1990, the Armed Forces in Turkey was found to be an institution the people have greatest trust in (91.4 percent); the Grand National Assembly and the Turkish political system occupied the seventh (57.1 percent) and ninth (49.7 percent) places in the relevant rank-order. See Türk Sanayicileri ve İşadamlari Derneg∪i, Türk Toplumunun Deg∪erleri ("Turks' Values") (Istanbul: TÜSIAD, 1991), 22.
75. Milliyet, 19 March 1991, and Turkish Daily News, 19 March 1991. It must be noted in passing that in a nationwide opinion survey carried out in October 1990, the Armed Forces in Turkey was found to be an institution the people have greatest trust in (91.4 percent); the Grand National Assembly and the Turkish political system occupied the seventh (57.1 percent) and ninth (49.7 percent) places in the relevant rank-order. See Türk Sanayicileri ve İşadamlari Derneg∪i, Türk Toplumunun Deg∪erleri ("Turks' Values") (Istanbul: TÜSIAD, 1991), 22.
76. Milliyet, 19 March 1991, and Turkish Daily News, 19 March 1991. It must be noted in passing that in a nationwide opinion survey carried out in October 1990, the Armed Forces in Turkey was found to be an institution the people have greatest trust in (91.4 percent); the Grand National Assembly and the Turkish political system occupied the seventh (57.1 percent) and ninth (49.7 percent) places in the relevant rank-order. See Türk Sanayicileri ve İşadamlari Derneg∪i, Türk Toplumunun Deg∪erleri ("Turks' Values") (Istanbul: TÜSIAD, 1991), 22.
77. Milliyet, 19 March 1991.
78. Milliyet, 6 June 1992.
79. See Note 7 above.
80. Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1957).
81. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratiztion in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 238.
82. Daniel Zirker and Marvin Henberg, "Amazonia: Democracy, Ecology and Brazilian Military Prerogatives in the 1990s," Armed Forces & Society, 20 (1994): 259-281.