Ecosystem sustainabiliy as a criterion for genuine virtue

Environmental Ethics

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 227-240

  Van Wensveen, Louke ^a  

^a LOYOLA MARYMOUNT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0013084366     PISSN: 01634275     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5840/enviroethics200123313     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. See Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, pp. 163-67.
2. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
3. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
4. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
5. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
6. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
7. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
8. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
9. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
10. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
11. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
12. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
13. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
14. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
15. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
16. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
17. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
18. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
19. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
20. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
21. E.g., Thomas E. Hill, "Ideals of Human Excellence and Preserving Natural Environments," Environmental Ethics 5 (1983): 211-24; Henryk Skolimowski, "Eco-Ethics as the Imperative of Our Times," Epiphany 3 (Spring 1983): 26-34, and "Reverence for Life," in Ethics of Environment and Development, ed. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1990), pp. 97-103; Eugene C. Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics (1989; reprint ed.,Denton, Tex.: Environmental Ethics Books, 1996); James A. Nash, Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility (Nashville/Abingdon Press, 1991), and "Toward the Revival and Reform of the Subversive Virtue: Frugality," Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1995): 137-60; Geoffrey B. Frasz, "Environmental Virtue Ethics: A New Direction for Environmental Ethics," Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 259-74; Val Plumwood, Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (New York: Routledge, 1993); Ron Erickson, "Comment on Environmental Virtue Ethics," Environmental Ethics 16 (1994): 334-336; Jamie Ehegartner Schaefer, "Ethical Implications of Applying Aquinas's Notions of the Unity and Diversity of Creation to Human Functioning in Ecosystems" (Marquette University: Ph.D. diss., 1994); Pamela Smith, "Aquinas and Today's Environmental Ethics: An Exploration of How the Vision and the Virtue Ethic of 'Ecothomism' Might Inform a Viable Eco-Ethic" (Ph.D. diss., Duquesne University, 1995); Deborah Blake, "Toward a Sustainable Ethic: Virtue and the Environment," in "And God Saw That It Was Good": Catholic Theology and the Environment, ed. Drew Christiansen and Walter Grazer (Washington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, 1996), pp. 197-210; Mary Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," Ethics and the Environment 1 (1996): 41-54; Michael S. Northcott, The Environment and Christian Ethics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Bill Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," Environmental Ethics 19 (1997): 53-67; Laura Westra, Living in Integrity: A Global Ethic to Restore a Fragmented Earth (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998); Steven Bouma-Prediger, "Creation Care and Character: The Nature and Necessity of the Ecological Virtues," Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 50 (March 1998): 6-21, and "A Constructive Proposal," in Christianity and Ecology: Wholeness, Respect, Justice, Sustainability, ed. Dieter T. Hessel and Rosemary Radford Ruether (Cambridge: Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, 1999); Louke van Wensveen, "Christian Ecological Virtue Ethics: Transforming a Tradition," in Hessel and Ruether, Christianity and Ecology, and Wensveen, Dirty Virtues.
22. This agreement does not prevent the analogical attribution of virtues to nonpersonal beings and entities, such as animals, natural elements, and cosmic forces.
23. See, for example, Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 2, chap. 4.
24. For a discussion of different types of virtue theories along these lines, see Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski, Virtues of the Mind: An Inquiry into the Nature of Virtue and the Ethical Foundations of Knowledge (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 78-84.
25. My own definition of virtue is thus tangential to this project. I currently understand a virtue to be an effective, easy, characteristic, and beneficial effort in relation to one or more temperamental or physical inclinations, with the understanding that beneficiality is a cybernetically adjusted notion.
26. See, e.g., Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
27. See, e.g., Herman E. Daly, "Sustainable Development: From Concepts and Theory Towards Operational Principles," in Resources, Environment, and Population, ed. Kingsley Davis and Mikhail S. Bernstein (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Peter Bartelmus, Environment, Growth and Development: The Concepts and Strategies of Sustainability (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), esp. p. 77.
28. See, e.g., Herman E. Daly, "Sustainable Development: From Concepts and Theory Towards Operational Principles," in Resources, Environment, and Population, ed. Kingsley Davis and Mikhail S. Bernstein (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); Peter Bartelmus, Environment, Growth and Development: The Concepts and Strategies of Sustainability (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), esp. p. 77.
29. Stuart F. Chapin III, Margaret S. Torn, and Masaki Tateno, "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," The American Naturalist 148 (December 1996): 1017. Functional groups are defined as "groups of species that have similar effects on ecosystem processes." The authors assume that ecosystems will evolve over time. Thus, ecosystem sustainability need not be predicated on equilibrium as the end state of ecosystems (a common assumption among the first ecological scientists), but can be consistent with the view that "transient behavior becomes the end point." Peter Turchin, as cited in Larry L. Rasmussen, Earth Community/Earth Ethics (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996), p. 156; see also Laura Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics: The Principle of Integrity (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), p. 59.
30. Stuart F. Chapin III, Margaret S. Torn, and Masaki Tateno, "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," The American Naturalist 148 (December 1996): 1017. Functional groups are defined as "groups of species that have similar effects on ecosystem processes." The authors assume that
31. Stuart F. Chapin III, Margaret S. Torn, and Masaki Tateno, "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," The American Naturalist 148 (December 1996): 1017. Functional groups are defined as "groups of species that have similar effects on ecosystem processes." The authors assume that ecosystems will evolve over time. Thus, ecosystem sustainability need not be predicated on equilibrium as the end state of ecosystems (a common assumption among the first ecological scientists), but can be consistent with the view that "transient behavior becomes the end point." Peter Turchin, as cited in Larry L. Rasmussen, Earth Community/Earth Ethics (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1996), p. 156; see also Laura Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics: The Principle of Integrity (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), p. 59.
32. Chapin et al., "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," p. 1019. David Waltner-Toews suggests a parallel idea for agricultural ecosystems, speaking of "biological infrastructure," in "Ecosystem Health: A Framework for Implementing Sustainability in Agriculture," BioScience 46 (October 1996): 686.
33. Chapin et al., "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," p. 1019. David Waltner-Toews suggests a parallel idea for agricultural ecosystems, speaking of "biological infrastructure," in "Ecosystem Health: A Framework for Implementing Sustainability in Agriculture," BioScience 46 (October 1996): 686.
34. Chapin et al., "Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability," pp. 1019, 1032.
35. Ibid., pp. 1032-33.
36. Ibid., p. 1032.
37. Ibid., p. 1027; citing D. A. Perry, M. P. Amaranthus, J. G. Borchers, and R. E. Brainerd, "Bootstrapping in Ecosystems," BioScience 39 (1989): 230-37.
38. Ibid., p. 1027; citing D. A. Perry, M. P. Amaranthus, J. G. Borchers, and R. E. Brainerd, "Bootstrapping in Ecosystems," BioScience 39 (1989): 230-37.
39. Many ecologically oriented people (myself included) object to the strong management idea proposed in the last citation, especially as applied to natural ecosystems. For an alternative, "deep" or "holistic" approach, see Laura Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, pp. 21-77.
40. See notes 30 and 31 below.
41. See Robert L. Olson, "Sustainability as a Social Vision," Journal of Social Issues 51 (1995): 15-35.
42. I do not mean to imply, however, that everyone likes the notion of sustainability. Mary Midgley, for example, dismisses it as too hopelessly steeped in the egoism and reductionism of the Enlightenment (Midgley, "Sustainability and Moral Pluralism," p. 45).
43. Larry Rasmussen warns, however, that "just when 'ecosystem' becomes a common notion that makes the evening news, supermarket ads, and even books in religious ethics, some scientists quit using it" (Rasmussen, Earth Community/Earth Ethics, p. 155). In this essay, I assume that ecosystems exhibit a degree of systemic order, but also adegree of unpredictable open-endedness. As humans we can learn about the orderliness, but we will always also have to make provision for that which escapes our understanding.
44. I thank my colleague Tim Shanahan for this formulation of the intuition. For a similar line of argument, see Shaw, "A Virtue Ethics Approach to Aldo Leopold's Land Ethic," p. 64, n. 25.
45. For a related argument pertaining to ethical projects in general, see Charles V. Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (Fall 1992): 112-28. I have borrowed the name of the first premise from Blatz, although the content differs. For a parallel Kantian foundation, see also Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 63-64. See Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics, p. 201, for a related argument within an Aristotelian framework. Westra presents a highly developed parallel argument, rooted in both Kantian and Aristotelian tradition (Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92; and Living in Integrity, p. 11). Against the backdrop of this larger context of inquiry, my specific contribution here is to combine an explicitly syllogistic presentation of the argument with a specific focus on virtue ethics.
46. For a related argument pertaining to ethical projects in general, see Charles V. Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (Fall 1992): 112-28. I have borrowed the name of the first premise from Blatz, although the content differs. For a parallel Kantian foundation, see also Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 63-64. See Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics, p. 201, for a related argument within an Aristotelian framework. Westra presents a highly developed parallel argument, rooted in both Kantian and Aristotelian tradition (Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92; and Living in Integrity, p. 11). Against the backdrop of this larger context of inquiry, my specific contribution here is to combine an explicitly syllogistic presentation of the argument with a specific focus on virtue ethics.
47. For a related argument pertaining to ethical projects in general, see Charles V. Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (Fall 1992): 112-28. I have borrowed the name of the first premise from Blatz, although the content differs. For a parallel Kantian foundation, see also Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 63-64. See Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics, p. 201, for a related argument within an Aristotelian framework. Westra presents a highly developed parallel argument, rooted in both Kantian and Aristotelian tradition (Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92; and Living in Integrity, p. 11). Against the backdrop of this larger context of inquiry, my specific contribution here is to combine an explicitly syllogistic presentation of the argument with a specific focus on virtue ethics.
48. For a related argument pertaining to ethical projects in general, see Charles V. Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (Fall 1992): 112-28. I have borrowed the name of the first premise from Blatz, although the content differs. For a parallel Kantian foundation, see also Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 63-64. See Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics, p. 201, for a related argument within an Aristotelian framework. Westra presents a highly developed parallel argument, rooted in both Kantian and Aristotelian tradition (Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92; and Living in Integrity, p. 11). Against the backdrop of this larger context of inquiry, my specific contribution here is to combine an explicitly syllogistic presentation of the argument with a specific focus on virtue ethics.
49. For a related argument pertaining to ethical projects in general, see Charles V. Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (Fall 1992): 112-28. I have borrowed the name of the first premise from Blatz, although the content differs. For a parallel Kantian foundation, see also Mark Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 63-64. See Hargrove, Foundations of Environmental Ethics, p. 201, for a related argument within an Aristotelian framework. Westra presents a highly developed parallel argument, rooted in both Kantian and Aristotelian tradition (Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92; and Living in Integrity, p. 11). Against the backdrop of this larger context of inquiry, my specific contribution here is to combine an explicitly syllogistic presentation of the argument with a specific focus on virtue ethics.
50. Since the sustainability of any one ecosystem is affected by the sustainability of surrounding ecosystems, and since such essential physical factors as oxygen and fresh water are produced by a network of ecosystems, we can also conclude that the sustainability of most ecosystems is a necessary condition for the cultivation of a virtue.
51. See Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 20-21. Sagoffs parallel Kantian argument reads as follows: "Our obligation to provide future individuals with an environment consistent with ideals we know to be good is an obligation not necessarily to those individuals but to the ideals themselves" (Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth, p. 63). Westra also builds her "principle of integrity" (see n. 39 below), which fits within both Aristotelian and Kantian tradition, on a consistency requirement: "Whatever else we need in a moral theory, we cannot consistently design or discover one that is totally divorced from the most basic realities of our existence" (An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92). However, Westra considers it desirable to supplement consistency-based reasoning with metaphysical support: "While it is possible ... to defend the value of integrity aside from metaphysical underpinnings, the latter help to make what I take to be a stronger case, and a more defensible one, for both value and obligation..." (ibid., p. 63; see also Westra, Living in Integrity, pp. 147-69).
52. See Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 20-21. Sagoffs parallel Kantian argument reads as follows: "Our obligation to provide future individuals with an environment consistent with ideals we know to be good is an obligation not necessarily to those individuals but to the ideals themselves" (Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth, p. 63). Westra also builds her "principle of integrity" (see n. 39 below), which fits within both Aristotelian and Kantian tradition, on a consistency requirement: "Whatever else we need in a moral theory, we cannot consistently design or discover one that is totally divorced from the most basic realities of our existence" (An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92). However, Westra considers it desirable to supplement consistency-based reasoning with metaphysical support: "While it is possible ... to defend the value of integrity aside from metaphysical underpinnings, the latter help to make what I take to be a stronger case, and a more defensible one, for both value and obligation..." (ibid., p. 63; see also Westra, Living in Integrity, pp. 147-69).
53. See Blatz, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 20-21. Sagoffs parallel Kantian argument reads as follows: "Our obligation to provide future individuals with an environment consistent with ideals we know to be good is an obligation not necessarily to those individuals but to the ideals themselves" (Sagoff, The Economy of the Earth, p. 63). Westra also builds her "principle of integrity" (see n. 39 below), which fits within both Aristotelian and Kantian tradition, on a consistency requirement: "Whatever else we need in a moral theory, we cannot consistently design or discover one that is totally divorced from the most basic realities of our existence" (An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, p. 92). However, Westra considers it desirable to supplement consistency-based reasoning with metaphysical support: "While it is possible ... to defend the value of integrity aside from metaphysical underpinnings, the latter help to make what I take to be a stronger case, and a more defensible one, for both value and obligation..." (ibid., p. 63; see also Westra, Living in Integrity, pp. 147-69).
54. See Kathryn Paxton George, "Sustainability and the Moral Community," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (1992): 56.
55. Paul B. Thompson, "The Varieties of Sustainability," Agriculture and Human Values 9 (1992): 16. Nevertheless, Thompson suggests that this objection may be "a constraint that those who wish to make philosophically coherent arguments for sustainability are obliged to accept."
56. For a similar argument regarding the role of rules in ethics, particularly in Aristotelian-style moral perception, see Hargrove, "The Role of Rules in Ethical Decision Making," Inquiry 28 (1985): 3-42.
57. For systems that have already died (e.g., dead lakes), the principle demands restoration (insofar as we are humanly capable of that) when required for the sustainability of surrounding ecosystems. Such a requirement can arise simply from the fact that ecosystems are to a degree mutually dependent. A dead neighbor cannot provide the kind of backup support that may be needed to make surrounding ecosystems sufficiently resilient.
58. Rasmussen, Earth Community/Earth Ethics, p. 168.
59. Ibid., p. 157.
60. Charles Blatz provides a taxonomy of more and less sustainable forms of agriculture that dovetails particularly well with the argument of this paper (Blaze, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 13-20). On the link between sustainable agriculture and the cultivation of virtue, see, for example, Wendell Berry, The Unsettling of America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977), and George, "Sustainability and the Moral Community," p. 56.
61. Charles Blatz provides a taxonomy of more and less sustainable forms of agriculture that dovetails particularly well with the argument of this paper (Blaze, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 13-20). On the link between sustainable agriculture and the cultivation of virtue, see, for example, Wendell Berry, The Unsettling of America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977), and George, "Sustainability and the Moral Community," p. 56.
62. Charles Blatz provides a taxonomy of more and less sustainable forms of agriculture that dovetails particularly well with the argument of this paper (Blaze, "The Very Idea of Sustainability," pp. 13-20). On the link between sustainable agriculture and the cultivation of virtue, see, for example, Wendell Berry, The Unsettling of America (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1977), and George, "Sustainability and the Moral Community," p. 56.
63. On ecosustainable design, see, for example, the work of William McDonough (e.g., "Design for Renewal," in Crisis and the Renewal of Creation: World and Church in the Age of Ecology, ed. J. Golliger and W. B. Logan [New York: Continuum, 1996], pp. 114-22); and the work of Nancy and John Todd (e.g., Bioshelters, Ocean Arks, City Farming: Ecology as the Basis of Design [San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1984]). Ecological design principles such as McDonough's "waste equals food" can in turn be fruitfully applied to the ethical task of building character, especially in drawing our attention to the ecosustainability of its often-neglected byproducts.
64. On ecosustainable design, see, for example, the work of William McDonough (e.g., "Design for Renewal," in Crisis and the Renewal of Creation: World and Church in the Age of Ecology, ed. J. Golliger and W. B. Logan [New York: Continuum, 1996], pp. 114-22); and the work of Nancy and John Todd (e.g., Bioshelters, Ocean Arks, City Farming: Ecology as the Basis of Design [San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1984]). Ecological design principles such as McDonough's "waste equals food" can in turn be fruitfully applied to the ethical task of building character, especially in drawing our attention to the ecosustainability of its often-neglected byproducts.
65. Insofar as we experience conflicts between ecosystem needs and other values, I concur with Sagoff that "there is no methodology for making 'hard decisions' and 'trade-offs.' We have to rely on the virtues of deliberation - open-mindedness, altention to detail, humor, and good sense." Sagoff, Economy of the Earth, p. 17.
66. Christopher Stone is a well-known defender of moral pluralism in environmental ethics (e.g., The Gnat Is Older than Man: Global Environment and Human Agenda [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993]). Many other ecologically minded people do not necessarily adopt pluralism as a considered philosophical position, but tend to welcome a degree of diversity as preferable over moral imperialism.
67. We need not be afraid that the possibility of such exceptions will be abused by those who seek the comfort of an "invisible hand" philosophy, since it is difficult to see in any realistic terms how a community in which the virtuous endeavors of all members violate the goal of ensuring ecosystem sustainability could still honor that goal.
68. For a discussion of four additional boundary criteria consistent with the criterion of ecosustainable virtue and based on an Aristotelian definition of virtue, see Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, pp. 87-96.
69. See Lee H. Yearley, Mencius and Aquinas: Theories of Virtue and Conceptions of Courage (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), pp. 19-23.
70. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, bk. 3, chap. 8.
71. I use the term counterfeit in a different sense than Lee Yearley does in his book Mencius and Aquinas. Yearley uses the term to describe apparently virtuous activities intended to deceive others, such as a calculating kind of amiability (p. 19). He also observes that "the concept of counterfeit virtues is easily understood and reveals little of theoretical interest about virtues" (p. 20). For this reason I prefer to reserve the term "counterfeit" for the more interesting phenomenon of terms and their referents that are mistakenly considered virtuous (or vicious, as the case may be; see Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, pp. 88-89, 91).
72. Westra defines the principle of integrity as follows: "I. The first moral principle is that nothing can be moral that is in conflict with the physical realities of our existence or cannot be seen to fit within the natural laws of our environment in order to support the primacy of integrity" (Westra, Living in Integrity, p. 11; see Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, pp. 92-93, 97). Westra also provides two deontological instantiations of the principle: "1a. Act so that your action will fit (first and minimally) within universal natural laws" and "1b. Act so that you manifest respect and understanding acceptance of all natural processes and laws (although self-defense is acceptable)."
73. Westra defines the principle of integrity as follows: "I. The first moral principle is that nothing can be moral that is in conflict with the physical realities of our existence or cannot be seen to fit within the natural laws of our environment in order to support the primacy of integrity" (Westra, Living in Integrity, p. 11; see Westra, An Environmental Proposal for Ethics, pp. 92-93, 97). Westra also provides two deontological instantiations of the principle: "1a. Act so that your action will fit (first and minimally) within universal natural laws" and "1b. Act so that you manifest respect and understanding acceptance of all natural processes and laws (although self-defense is acceptable)."
74. Westra, Living in Integrity, pp. 156, 159, 167. However, Westra does not highlight the coincidence that both the concept of virtue and the concept of integrity (or sustainability in the synonymous sense) imply constancy over time, which must be made explicit for the premise that the former depends on the latter to hold (see my argument under the precondition premise). If this link is not spelled out, the principle of integrity leaves open a loophole for those who pursue apocalyptic values. An agent who expects the imminent end (or divine transformation) of this world could without inconsistency perform moral acts that, because of their harmful effects on ecosystems, undermine long-term moral agency. For example, a church member might generously contribute to a fund for the construction of a dazzling but highly unsustainable steel-and-glass church building. Only because constancy over time inheres to the concept of virtue are we able to say that this act of generosity does not exemplify the virtue of generosity.
75. Ibid., pp. 168-69.
76. The virtue language that emerges from the environmental movement goes hand in hand with significant shifts in world view (see Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, chaps. 2-7). This includes a shift away from emphasis on the distinctiveness of humans as rational beings to emphasis on shared characteristics between humans and nonhuman beings. Thus caution and discerning precision are also in order when, in the context of constructing an ecological virtue theory, we seek to reclaim the classical notion of human flourishing as "moral and intellectual activity in accordance with reason" (Westra, Living in Integrity, p. 159). More broadly, we must rethink the presumed necessity of defining flourishing or excellence as species-specific (see Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics bk. 1, chap. 7).
77. The virtue language that emerges from the environmental movement goes hand in hand with significant shifts in world view (see Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, chaps. 2-7). This includes a shift away from emphasis on the distinctiveness of humans as rational beings to emphasis on shared characteristics between humans and nonhuman beings. Thus caution and discerning precision are also in order when, in the context of constructing an ecological virtue theory, we seek to reclaim the classical notion of human flourishing as "moral and intellectual activity in accordance with reason" (Westra, Living in Integrity, p. 159). More broadly, we must rethink the presumed necessity of defining flourishing or excellence as species-specific (see Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics bk. 1, chap. 7).
78. The virtue language that emerges from the environmental movement goes hand in hand with significant shifts in world view (see Wensveen, Dirty Virtues, chaps. 2-7). This includes a shift away from emphasis on the distinctiveness of humans as rational beings to emphasis on shared characteristics between humans and nonhuman beings. Thus caution and discerning precision are also in order when, in the context of constructing an ecological virtue theory, we seek to reclaim the classical notion of human flourishing as "moral and intellectual activity in accordance with reason" (Westra, Living in Integrity, p. 159). More broadly, we must rethink the presumed necessity of defining flourishing or excellence as species-specific (see Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics bk. 1, chap. 7).
79. See Olson, "Sustainability as a Social Vision."
80. A criterion of socio-sustainable virtue would also have intuitive support. To return to my previous illustration, it would not strike me as truly generous if my Christmas giving is based on stealing from the poor.