'Our history syllabus has us gasping': History in Canadian Schools - Past, present, and future

Canadian Historical Review

Volumn 81, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 403-442

  Osborne, Ken ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0012771286     PISSN: 00083755     EISSN: 17101093     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3138/chr.81.3.403     Document Type: Review

References (233)

1. The George Ross quotation is taken from Alf Chaiton and Neil McDonald, eds., Canadian Schools and Canadian Identity (Toronto: Gage 1977), 14-15.
2. For the 1890s textbook contest, see Geneviève Laloux-Jain, Les manuels d 'histoire du Canada au Québec et en Ontario (de 1867 à 1914) (Québec: Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1974), especially 80-95.
3. Lorne Pierce, New History for Old: The J. Clarence Webster Lectures for 1929 -30 (Sackville, NB: Tribune Press 1931);
4. Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, Report of the Canadian School History Textbook Survey (Toronto: WILPF Toronto Branch 1933).
5. See also Ken Osborne, 'An Early Example of the Analysis of History Textbooks in Canada,' Canadian Social Studies 29 (1994): 21-5.
6. For an example of the turn to a romanticized social history, see the grade 9 textbook written by George Wrong, Walter Sage, and Chester Martin, The Story of Canada (Toronto: Ryerson 1929).
7. For the 1944 Senate debate, see Canada, Senate, Debates, 4 May 1944-20 July 1944, 147-330 passim.
8. The debate was dominated by Quebec federalists, and of the four non-Quebec senators who participated, three were francophones. The model curricula of the Canada and Newfoundland Education Association are to be found in the 'Report of the Committee for the Study of Canadian History Textbooks' in Canadian Education 1 (Oct. 1945): 3-35.
9. Related material can be found in Archange Godbout, 'Enquête sur l'enseignement de l'histoire du Canada au Canada français,' Culture: sciences réligieuses et profanes au Canada 5 (1944): 156-68;
10. Jean Bruchési, 'History and National Life,' Culture: sciences réligieuses et profanes au Canada, 7 (1946): 177-94;
11. Arthur Maheux, 'A Dilemma for Our Culture,' Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting Held at Halifax, June 10 and 11, 1949, 1-6;
12. Jean Bruchési, 'L'enseignement de l'histoire du Canada,' Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting Held at Québec, June 4 -6, 1952, 1-13.
13. Hilda Neatby, So Little for the Mind (Toronto: Clarke Irwin 1953);
14. Joseph Katz, The Teaching of Canadian History in Canada: A Survey Study of the Teaching of Canadian History in Junior and Senior High Schools (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba 1953)
15. A.B. Hodgetts, What Culture? What Heritage? (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education 1968)
16. Jack Granatstein, Who Killed Canadian History? (Toronto: HarperCollins 1998).
17. See also A.B. McKillop, 'Who Killed Canadian History? A View from the Trenches,' Canadian Historical Review 80 (June 1999): 269-99.
18. Jean Chrétien is quoted in 'Educators biased in teaching history: PM,' National Post, 28 June 1999: A1.
19. Joe Clark, A Country Too Good to Lose (Toronto: Key Porter 1994);
20. Citizens' Forum on Canada's Future, Report to the People and Government of Canada (Ottawa 1991)
21. David Bercuson and S.F. Wise, eds., The Valour and the Horror Revisited (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1994)
22. Groupe de travail sur l'enseignement de l'histoire, Se souvenir et devenir (Québec: Ministère de l'Éducation 1996)
23. Ken Osborne, 'The Changing Status of History in Manitoba,' Canadian Social Studies 31 (fall 1996): 28-30
24. Marie McAndrew and Caroline Tessier, 'L'éducation à la citoyenneté en milieu québécois: situation actuelle et perspectives comparatives,' Canadian Ethnic Studies 29 (1997): 58-81;
25. Ken Osborne, 'Civics, Citizenship and Politics: Political Education in the Schools,' in Working Papers in Political Education, University of Manitoba Monographs in Education 12 (Winnipeg 1984), 23-61;
26. Alan Sears and Andrew Hughes, 'Citizenship Education and Current Educational Reform,' Canadian Journal of Education 21 (1996): 123-142
27. Michael Bliss, 'Privatizing the Mind: The Sundering of Canadian History, The Sundering of Canada,' Journal of Canadian Studies 26 (1991-2): 5-17
28. For a sampling of the international debate on the role of history in education, see Pierre Giolotto, L 'enseignement d 'histoire aujourd 'hui (Paris: Armand Collin/Bourrellier 1986);
29. R. Aldrich, ed., History in the National Curriculum (London: Kogan Page 1991);
30. Joshua Brown et al., eds., History from South Africa: Alternative Visions and Practices (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1991);
31. R.W. Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution (London: Macmillan 1989);
32. Frank Furedi, Mythical Past, Elusive Future: History and Society in an Anxious Age (London: Pluto 1992);
33. A.M. Schlesinger, The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society (New York: Norton 1991);
34. Marc Ferro, Comment on raconte l 'histoire aux enfants (Paris: Éditions Payot 1992);
35. Anthony Jones, ed., Education and Society in the New Russia (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe 1994);
36. Gary B. Nash, Charlotte Crabtree, and Ross Dunn, History on Trial: Culture Wars and the Teaching of the Past (New York: Knopf 1997);
37. Raphael Samuel, Island Stories: Unravelling Britain (London: Verso 1998), 97-232;
38. Claude Carpentier, ed., Identité nationale et enseignement de l 'histoire: contextes européens et africains (Montréal: L'Harmattan 1999).
39. The PEI example is taken from Walter N. Sage, 'The Teaching of History in the Elementary Schools of Canada,' Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting Held at Montreal, May 23, 1930, 55-63.
40. The Manitoba example is from Public Schools of Manitoba: Programme of Studies, 1910 (Winnipeg: Public Schools Advisory Board 1910), 5ff.
41. Katz, The Teaching of Canadian History in Canada, 13-14
42. For surveys of citizenship education in Canadian schools, see Ken Osborne, '"Education Is the Best National Insurance": Citizenship Education in Canadian Schools, Past and Present,' Canadian and International Education 25 (1996): 31-58;
43. and his 'Citizenship Education and Social Studies' in Ian Wright and Alan Sears, eds., Trends and Issues in Canadian Social Studies (Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press 1997), 39-67;
44. Alan Sears, 'Social Studies as Citizenship Education in English Canada,' Theory and Research in Social Education 22 (1994): 6-43,
45. and 'What Research Tells Us about Citizenship Education in English Canada,' Canadian Social Studies 30 (spring 1996): 121-7;
46. and the special issue of Canadian Ethnic Studies 29 (1997) devoted to citizenship and citizenship education.
47. E. A. Fulton, 'The Teaching of Contemporary History,' History 13 (1926): 124
48. Mildred B. McCallum, 'Embryo Citizenship,' The Western School Journal, 14 (June 1919): 234-239
49. The quotation comes from Jean Barman, '"Knowledge Is Essential for Universal Progress but Fatal to Class Privilege": Working People and the Schools in Vancouver during the 1920s,' Labour/Le Travail 22 (1988): 25.
50. See also Bill Majiecko, 'Public Schools and the Workers' Struggle, Winnipeg 1914-1921,' in Nancy M. Sheehan, J. Donald Wilson, and David C. Jones, eds., Schools in the West: Essays in Canadian Educational History (Calgary: Detselig 1986): 213-40;
51. and Philip R.V. Curoe, Educational Attitudes and Policies of Organized Labor (New York: Teachers College Bureau of Publications 1926).
52. W.L. Morton once made a passing comment that agrarian democratic ideals were in part kept alive by 'young women who taught school in Ontario and the West,' but as yet we know very little about them. See Morton, 'A Century of Plain and Parkland,' in Richard Allen, ed., A Region of the Mind (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center 1969), 174.
53. For mention of one such teacher, Grace Shaw of Roaring River, Manitoba, see Barbara Roberts, A Reconstructed World: A Feminist Biography of Gertrude Richardson (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press 1996): 91, 102, and passim.
54. Active politicians such as William Aberhart and M.J. Coldwell enjoyed long and successful teaching careers. For Agnes Macphail's early teaching career, see Terry Crowley, Agnes Macphail and the Politics of Equality (Toronto: Lorimer 1990), 14-31.
55. Norman Penner's reminiscences are in his 'The Making of a Radical: Winnipeg in the 1930s,' in Irving Abella and David Millar, eds., The Canadian Worker in the Twentieth Century (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1978), 149-150.
56. George W. Brown, Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting Held at Montreal, June 1 -2, 1944, 7
57. Hodgetts, What Culture? What Heritage? 24-40.
58. See also Ken Dewar, 'The Road to Happiness: History in Public School Textbooks,' This Magazine Is About Schools 6 (fall 1972): 102-27;
59. Ken Osborne, 'Hard-Working, Temperate and Peaceable ': The Portrayal of Workers in Canadian History Textbooks, University of Manitoba Monographs in Education 4 (Winnipeg 1980);
60. and Daniel Francis, National Dreams: Myth, Memory and Canadian History (Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp Press 1997).
61. G. McDiarmid and D. Pratt, Teaching Prejudice: A Content Analysis of Social Studies Textbooks Authorized for Use in Ontario (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education 1971).
62. See also Manitoba Indian Brotherhood, The Shocking Truth about Indians in Textbooks (Winnipeg: Manitoba Indian Brotherhood nd).
63. H.T.J. Coleman; 'Teaching for the New Citizenship,' Queen's Quarterly 27 (1919): 21
64. G.J. Reeve, Canada: Its History and Progress (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1926), iii
65. Charles Bilodeau, 'L'histoire nationale,' in Royal Commission Studies: A Selection of Essays Prepared for the Royal Commission on National Development in the Arts, Letters and Sciences (Ottawa: King's Printer 1951), 217
66. André Laurendeau, Nos écoles enseignent-elles la haine de l 'anglais? (Montréal: Les éditions de l'Action nationale 1937), 18-19.
67. For Maheux's repetition of his charges in the 1940s, see his Ton histoire est une épopée (Québec: Charrier & Dugal 1941), 1-25,
68. and Pourquoi sommes-nous divisés? (Montréal: Radio Canada 1943), 147-56.
69. This last book provoked a passionate response from Lionel Groulx, Pourquoi nous sommes divisés (Montréal: Les éditions de l'Action nationale 1943).
70. Bilodeau, 'L'histoire nationale,' 226.
71. See also 'Report of the Committee for the Study of Canadian History Textbooks,' in Canadian Education 1 (1945): 3-35.
72. Lucien Bouchard is quoted in Jeffrey Simpson, Faultlines: Struggling for a Canadian Vision (Toronto: HarperCollins 1993), 279-81.
73. The 1940s saw a number of complaints about the alleged narrowness of history teaching in Quebec. To take a typical example, Jean Bruchési of Université de Montréal in 1946 complained that 'all too often the study of history in French Canada has a marked tendency towards the narrowest regionalism,' in his 'History and National Life,' 180. Arthur Lebel, a Laval classicist, told a Toronto audience in 1958 that history teaching in Quebec schools was largely secular and pan-Canadian in outlook, though Marcel Trudel tells a different story in his memoirs. See Lebel, 'The Teaching of History in Quebec Schools,' Culture: sciences réligieuses et profanes au Canada 19 (1958): 376-90;
74. Marcel Trudel, Mémoires d 'un autre siècle (Montréal: Boréal Express 1987), 192-3.
75. The question was also discussed in the Senate textbook debate of 1944. A recent complaint that Quebec history textbooks are unbalanced is Monique Nemni's 'Canada: The Case of the Vanishing Country,' Cité Libre 26 (June 1998): 61-71;
76. but see also Christian Laville, 'History Taught in Quebec Is Not Really That Different from the History Taught Elsewhere in Canada,' Canadian Social Studies 31 (fall 1996): 22-4, 42.
77. M.B. Wood, 'A Plea for History Teaching,' The Western School Journal 13 (1918): 15-18
78. Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, Report of the Canadian School History Textbook Survey, 59
79. Katz, The Teaching of Canadian History in Canada, 31
80. Hodgetts, What Culture? What Heritage? 115
81. Pierce, New History for Old, 39
82. Lionel Groulx, Mes mémoires (Montréal: Fides 1970), 1: 35.
83. The Frégault comment is cited in André Lefebvre, Pédagogie de l 'histoire (Montréal: Guérin 1978), 95.
84. Report of the Department of Education, 1920 -1921 (Winnipeg: Manitoba Department of Education 1921), 66.
85. For more on the state of teaching in these years, see Ken Osborne, 'One Hundred Years of History Teaching in Manitoba Schools. Part 1: 1897-1927,' Manitoba History 36 (autumn/winter 1998-9): 3-25.
86. More generally see Penney Clark, '"Home-Grown Product" or "Made in America"? History of Social Studies in English Canada,' in Wright and Sears, eds., Trends and Issues in Canadian Social Studies, 1997): 68-99;
87. and George Tomkins, A Common Countenance: Stability and Change in the Canadian Curriculum (Scarborough: Prentice Hall 1986), passim.
88. The quotation is from a report on history teaching prepared by the University of Toronto history department in 1923. See Observations on the Teaching of History and Civics in Primary and Secondary Schools of Canada (Winnipeg: National Council of Education 1923), 14.
89. The quotation is from Walter N. Sage, 'The Teaching of History in the Elementary Schools of Canada,' Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting held at Montreal, May 23, 1930, 56.
90. Manitoba Teachers' Federation, Bulletin, 15 Nov. 1923, 471-472
91. George M. Wrong, 'The Teaching of the History and Geography of the British Empire,' Canadian Historical Review 5 (1924): 303;
92. S.B. Watson, 'A Layman's View on the Teaching of History,' Canadian Historical Review ibid., 15 (1934): 155-156
93. This description of the elements of good history teaching is drawn from a variety of sources, chief among them M.W. Keatinge, Studies in the Teaching of History (London: A. & C. Black 1910);
94. Henry Johnson, The Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools (New York: Macmillan 1915);
95. John Adams, ed., The New Teaching (London: Hodder & Stoughton 1919);
96. H.G. Wells, The Story of a Great Schoolmaster (New York: Macmillan 1924);
97. H. Ann Drummond, History in School: A Study of Some of Its Problems (London: Harrap 1929); and a wide range of articles in the pedagogical literature of the early 1900s, notably History (Britain), The Historical Outlook (USA), and The Western School Journal (Canada).
98. In its 1923 report on history teaching, the University of Toronto history department noted the deleterious effects of the 'cast-iron examination system, by which pupils are more often than not encouraged to memorize verbally large sections of a text which they do not understand and in which they are quite uninterested,' but went on to argue that the solution was not to abolish examinations but to reform them so as 'to display the ability of pupils for organized thought and expression.' Observations on the Teaching of History and Civics, 14.
99. William A. McIntyre, 'Education and Examinations,' The Western School Journal 35 (Sept. 1935): 251.
100. For a non-educationist's complaint about 'the lamentable over-emphasis on examinations,' see B.K. Sandwell, 'Canada: An Illiterate Nation?' Queen 's Quarterly 43 (spring 1936): 42.
101. Hilda Neatby similarly condemned provincial examinations as 'mere tests of mechanical memorization,' in 'Education for Democracy,' Dalhousie Review 24 (1944): 49.
102. Edgar B. Wesley, 'History in the School Curriculum,' Mississippi Valley Historical Review 29 (March 1943): 568-9.
103. For a more recent argument that history should not be taught before grade 9, since until then students cannot understand it, see David Pratt, 'History in Schools: Reflections on Curriculum Priorities,' Canadian Historical Association, Historical Papers, 1983 (Ottawa: CHA, 1983), 81-95.
104. American Historical Association, The Study of History in Schools: Report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Seven (New York: Macmillan 1899).
105. The same argument was repeated in a subsequent AHA report: see The Study of History in Secondary Schools: A Report to the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five (New York: Macmillan 1911).
106. The 'axioms' come from S.B. Watson, 'A Layman's View on the Teaching of History,' Canadian Historical Review 15 (1934): 155-70.
107. For another statement of the importance of thinking historically, see Reginald G. Trotter, 'Aims in the Study and Teaching of History in Canadian Universities Today,' Canadian Historical Association, Report of the Annual Meeting held at Hamilton, May 24 -5, 1943, 50-62.
108. For a recent argument to the same effect, see Robert Martineau, L 'histoire à l 'école: matière à penser (Montréal: L'Harmattan 1999).
109. For a more recent argument that the value of history lies in its contribution to a distinctive way of thinking and that it should therefore not be used as a vehicle for citizenship, national integration, or any other such purpose, see Peter J. Lee. 'Historical Knowledge and the National Curriculum,' in Aldrich, ed., History in the National Curriculum, 39-65.
110. 'The Ideal History Syllabus: A Discussion,' History 12 (1932): 32-33
111. Annual Report of the School District of Winnipeg, 1913, 23.
112. For the American origin of these ideas, see Franklin W. Bobbitt, How to Make a Curriculum (Boston: Houghton Mifflin 1924);
113. W.W. Charters, Curriculum Construction (New York: Macmillan 1925);
114. David Snedden, The Sociological Determination of Educational Objectives (Philadelphia: Lippincott 1921).
115. On these and other aspects of curriculum development in the United States, see Henry M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum 1893 -1958 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1986).
116. Julie A. Reuben, 'Beyond Politics: Community Civics and the Redefinition of Citizenship in the Progressive Era,' History of Education Quarterly 37 (1997): 399-420.
117. On the course in problems of democracy, see R.O. Hughes, 'The Twelfth Grade Course in Problems of Democracy,' The Historical Outlook 17 (April 1926): 182-4.
118. On the efficiency movement in education generally, see Raymond Callaghan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1962).
119. For the 1916 report, see Murray B. Nelson, ed., The Social Studies in Secondary Education: A Reprint of the Seminal 1916 Report with Annotations and Commentaries (Bloomington: Social Science Education Consortium 1994);
120. Michael Lybarger, 'Origins of the Modern Social Studies, 1900-1916,' History of Education Quarterly 23 (1983): 455-68;
121. and Donald W. Saxe, Social Studies in Schools: A History of the Early Years (Albany: State University of New York Press 1991).
122. Robert S. Patterson, 'The Canadian Experience with Progressive Education,' in E.B. Titley, ed., Canadian Education: Historical Themes and Contemporary Issues (Calgary: Detselig 1990), 96
123. Myrtle T. Lewis, 'Report on the Library,' Report of the Department of Education, Manitoba, 1940 -41 (Winnipeg: Department of Education 1941), 68.
124. Sympathetic accounts of progressive education in Canada can be found in W. Stewart Lavell, 'New Theories at Work in Canadian Schools,' Queen 's Quarterly 46 (1939): 312-19;
125. and Walter Bedard, 'The New Education as Seen by Canadians,' Culture: sciences réligieuses et sciences profanes au Canada 5 (1940): 333-42.
126. The best and most polemical critiques remain Neatby's So Little for the Mind
127. and Arthur Bestor's Educational Wastelands 2nd ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1985);
128. but see also two papers by Kieran Egan of Simon Fraser University: 'John Dewey and the Social Studies Curriculum,' Theory and Research in Social Education 8 (1980): 37-55,
129. and 'Social Studies and the Erosion of Education,' Curriculum Inquiry 13 (1983): 195-214.
130. Robert S. Patterson, 'The Canadian Experience with Progressive Education,' in Titley, ed., Canadian Education, 95-110.
131. See also his 'Progressive Education: Impetus to Educational Change in Alberta and Saskatchewan,' in Howard Palmer and Donald Smith, eds., The New Provinces: Alberta and Saskatchewan (Vancouver: Tantalus 1980), 173-98,
132. and his 'The Implementation of Progressive Education in Canada,' in N. Kach et al., eds., Essays on Canadian Education (Calgary: Detselig 1986), 79-96.
133. See also Amy von Heyking, 'Selling Progressive Education to Albertans, 1935-1953,' Historical Studies in Education 10 (1998): 67-84.
134. Paul Gallagher and A.B. Hodgetts, Teaching Canada for the 80s (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education 1978).
135. This book's downplaying of history prompted Paul Bennett to write his Rediscovering Canadian History (Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education 1980).
136. 'Curricula for Canadian High Schools,' The Western School Journal 30 (Feb. 1935): 44-46
137. See, for example, Roy Hallam, 'Logical Thinking in History,' Educational Review 19 (1967): 183-202;
138. E.A. Peel, The Nature of Adolescent Judgment (London: Staples 1971).
139. For much more optimistic assessments of what children and adolescents can do, see Martin B. Booth, 'Skills, Concepts and Attitudes: The Development of Adolescent Children's Historical Thinking,' History and Theory 22 (1983): 101-17;
140. Peter L. Lee and Alaric K. Dickinson, History Teaching and Historical Understanding (London: Heinemann 1978);
141. and Denis Shemilt, 'Adolescent Ideas about Evidence and Methodology in History,' in Christopher Portal, ed., The History Curriculum for Teachers (Lewes, England: Falmer 1987), 39-61.
142. On the curricular transformations of the 1960s, see R.D. Gidney, From Hope to Harris: The Reshaping of Ontario's Schools (Toronto: University of Toronto Press 1999), 63-86;
143. George S. Tomkins, A Common Countenance: Stability and Change in the Canadian Curriculum (Toronto: Prentice Hall 1986), 264-436;
144. Ken Osborne, '"To the Schools We Must Look for the Good Canadian": Developments in the Teaching of History since 1960,' Journal of Canadian Studies 23 (1987): 104-26;
145. Bob Davis, Whatever Happened to High School History? Burying the Political Memory of Youth, Ontario 1945 -1995 (Toronto: Lorimer 1995).
146. For an account of the schools' acceptance of multiculturalism, see Harold Troper, 'Nationalism and the History Curriculum in Canada,' The History Teacher 13 (1978): 11-28.
147. For Bruner's 'Man: A Course of Study,'
148. see Jerome S. Bruner, Toward a Theory of Instruction (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1966), 73-101.
149. For early examples of the social science challenge to history in the schools, see American Political Association, The Teaching of Government: Report to the American Political Science Association by the Committee on Instruction (New York: Macmillan 1916);
150. American Sociological Association, 'Tentative Report of the Committee on Teaching of Sociology in the Grade and High Schools,' American Sociological Society Proceedings 14 (1920): 243-51;
151. American Economic Association, Social Studies in Secondary Schools (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1922).
152. William T. Lowe, Structure and the Social Studies (Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1969), 81.
153. For the argument that teachers should teach the 'structure of the disciplines,' see Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1960).
154. See also G.W. Ford and L. Pugno, eds., The Structure of Knowledge and the Curriculum (Chicago: Rand McNally 1964);
155. Irving Morrissett, ed., Concepts and Structure in the New Social Science Curricula (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston 1967);
156. and L.J. Hebert and W. Murphy, eds.), Structure in the Social Studies (Washington: National Council for the Social Studies 1968).
157. For the impact of this approach in Canada, see R.C. Macleod, 'History in Canadian Secondary Schools,' Canadian Historical Review 63 (1982): 573-85;
158. Geoff Milburn, 'The Social Studies Curriculum in Canada: A Survey of the Published Literature in the Last Decade,' Journal of Educational Thought 10 (1976): 214-24;
159. and Osborne, '"To the Schools We Must Look for the Good Canadian,"' 104-26.
160. See, for example, Michael F.D. Young, ed., Knowledge and Control: New Directions for the Sociology of Education (London: Collier-Macmillan 1971);
161. Denis Lawton, Class, Culture and the Curriculum (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1975);
162. Michael W. Apple, Ideology and the Curriculum (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1979);
163. Geoff Whitty, Sociology and School Knowledge: Curriculum Theory, Research and Politics (London: Methuen 1985).
164. C.G. Sellers, 'Is History on the Way Out of the Schools and Do Historians Care?' Social Education 33 (1969): 510.
165. The locus classicus of the 'scientific' approach to curriculum making is Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1949).
166. Blair Neatby, 'The Curriculum Committee that Never Was,' The History and Social Science Teacher 5 (1970): 59-64;
167. Lewis Hertzmann, 'The Sad Demise of History: Social Studies in the Alberta Schools,' Dalhousie Review 43 (1963): 515-22;
168. Nash, Crabtree, and Dunn, History on Trial, 36ff.
169. For recent accounts of provincial curriculum making in which history has not fared well, see the special issue of Canadian Social Studies 31 (fall 1996): 14-45. It should perhaps also be noted that after the 1950s school textbooks were increasingly written by teachers and professional writers and less often by historians.
170. Hodgetts, What Culture? What Heritage? 53-6 and 66 n 9.
171. For inquiry teaching more generally, see Edwin Fenton, ed., Teaching the New Social Studies in Secondary Schools (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston 1968);
172. and Barry K. Beyer, Inquiry in the Social Studies Classroom (Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merrill 1971).
173. Micheline Johnson, L 'histoire apprivoisée (Montréal: Boréal Express 1979), 117
174. Mel Hurtig, Never Heard of Them ... They Must Be Canadian (Toronto: Canadabooks 1975)
175. On American students' ignorance of history, see Dianne Ravitch and Chester E. Finn, What Do Our 17-year Olds Know? A Report on the First National Assessment of History and Literature (New York: Harper & Row 1988).
176. For earlier surveys that reported similar results, see New York Times, 4 April 1943
177. and M.H. Degraff, 'A Measure of Factual Achievement in American History,' The Historical Outlook 16 (Nov. 1925): 320-2.
178. In 1925 University of Iowa historian Bessie Pierce lamented American students' 'appalling lack of factual information.' See her 'Social Studies in the Eighth Grade,' The Historical Outlook 16 (Nov. 1925): 331 n5.
179. For a summary of the current state of affairs in Europe, see Keith Robbins, 'National Identity and History: Past, Present and Future,' in his History, Religion and Identity in Modern Britain (London: Hambledon 1993), 27-44.
180. Wrong, 'The Teaching of the History and Geography of the British Empire,' 306
181. Bruchési, 'L'enseignement de l'histoire du Canada,' 4.
182. For an argument that what teachers need above all is a careful study of 'the purposes, potential and limitations of historical education, in the company of scholars and in the context of the academic study of history,' see Pratt, 'History in Schools,' 95.
183. Some recent research indicates that student teachers can have a solid grounding in historical methods, but still not apply it in the classroom. See G. Williamson McDiarmid, 'Understanding History for Teaching: A Study of the Historical Understanding of Prospective Teachers,' in Mario Carretero and James F. Voss, eds., Cognitive and Instructional Processes in History and the Social Sciences (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1994), 159-184.
184. Will Kymlicka, Finding Our Way: Rethinking Ethnocultural Relations in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1998), 174.
185. See also Gail Cuthbert Brandt, 'National Unity and the Politics of Political History,' Canadian Historical Association, Journal, (new series, 3 (1992): 3-11,
186. and her 'Canadian National Histories: Their Evolving Content and Uses,' The History Teacher 30 (Feb. 1997): 137-44;
187. and Robert Comeau and Bernard Dionne, eds., ̀ propos de l 'histoire nationale (Sillery: Septentrion 1998).
188. In contrast, Gwyn Dyer has recently suggested that we should abandon much of Canadian history as irrelevant to the new generation of young Canadians who have no roots in the French, the British, or the Aboriginal past of Canada. See his 'Trouble with History,' in Air Canada's En Route magazine, Feb. 2000, 49-54.
189. For university texts, see J.M. Bumsted, The People of Canada, 2 vols (Toronto: Oxford University Press 1992);
190. Margaret Conrad, Alvin Finkel, and Cornelius Jaenen, A History of the Canadian Peoples, 1: Beginnings to 1867 (Toronto: Copp Clark 1993);
191. Alvin Finkel and Margaret Conrad, with Veronica Strong-Boag, A History of the Canadian Peoples, 2: 1867 to the Present (Toronto: Copp Clark 1993);
192. Jacques Paul Couturier, Wendy Johnston, et Réjean Ouellette, Un passé composé, le Canada de 1850 à nos jours (Moncton: Éditions d'Acadie 1996);
193. Jean-François Cardin, Claude Couture, et Gratien Allaire, Histoire du Canada: espace et différence (Sainte-Foy, Qué.: Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1997).
194. The English-language texts are discussed in 'New Wine or Just New Bottles?' Journal of Canadian Studies 30 (winter 1995-6): 175-201;
195. and in Janet Guildford and Michael Earle, 'On Choosing a Textbook: Recent Canadian History Surveys and Readers,' Acadiensis 27 (autumn 1997): 133-44.
196. The French texts are assessed in 'Débat: à propos de deux manuels récents d'histoire du Canada,' Revue d 'histoire de l 'Amérique française 51 (printemps 1998): 549-577.
197. For examples of school texts, see Daniel Francis and Sonia Riddoch, Our Canada: A Social and Political History (Toronto: Pippin 1995);
198. and Penney Clark and Roberta McKay, Canada Revisited: A Social and Political History of Canada to 1911 (Edmonton: Arnold 1992).
199. Ken Osborne, 'The Emerging Agenda for Canadian High Schools,' Journal of Curriculum Studies 24 (1992): 371-9.
200. See also Heather-Jane Robertson, No More Teachers, No More Books (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart 1998),
201. and 'Shall We Dance?' Phi Delta Kappan 80 (June 1999): 729-736.
202. Brian Young, 'L'éducation à la citoyenneté et l'historien professionel: quelques hypothèses,' in Robert Comeau and Bernard Dionne, ̀ propos de l 'histoire nationale (Sillery: Septentrion 1998), 64
203. George M. Wrong, 'The Teaching of the History and Geography of the British Empire,' Canadian Historical Review 5 (Dec. 1924): 303,
204. Peter Seixas, 'A Discipline Adrift in an "Integrated" Curriculum: History in British Columbia Schools,' Canadian Journal of Education 19 (1994): 103;
205. Manitoba Education and Training, Manitoba Social Studies Assessment 1989: Final Report (Winnipeg 1991).
206. See also Peter Seixas, 'The Community of Inquiry as a Basis for Knowledge and Learning: The Case of History,' American Educational Research Journal 30 (1993): 305-24.
207. According to one estimate, in the United States only 18.5 per cent of middle school and high school social studies teachers have a major or even a minor specifically in history; see Dianne Ravitch, 'Who Prepares Our History Teachers? Who Should Prepare Our History Teachers?' The History Teacher 31 (August 1998): 497.
208. In recent years, educationists and psychologists have paid increasing attention to students' historical thinking. For some examples of this work, see Samuel S. Wineburg, 'Historical Problem Solving: A Study of the Cognitive Processes Used in Evaluation of Documents and Pictorial Evidence,' Journal of Educational Psychology 83 (March 1991): 73-87;
209. Samuel S. Wineburg, 'Probing the Depths of Students' Historical Knowledge,' Perspectives: Newsletter of the American Historical Association (30 March 1992): 20-4;
210. Samuel S. Wineburg, 'Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts,' Phi Delta Kappan 80 (March 1999): 488-99;
211. Mario Carretero and James Voss, eds., Cognitive and Instructional Processes in History and the Social Sciences (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1994);
212. Peter Seixas, 'Students' Understanding of Historical Significance,' Theory and Research in Social Education 22 (summer 1994): 281-304;
213. Peter Seixas, 'Conceptualizing the Growth of Historical Understanding,' in D.R. Olson and N. Torrance, eds., Handbook of Education and Human Development (Oxford: Blackwell 1996), 765-83;
214. G. Leinhardt, E. Beck, and C. Stainton, eds., Teaching and Learning in History (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1994);
215. C.A. Perfettio, M.A. Britt, and M.C. Georgi, Text-based Learning and Reasoning: Studies in History (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum 1995);
216. Peter Lee, '"A Lot of Guess Work Goes On": Children's Understanding of Historical Accounts,' Teaching History 92 (Aug. 1998): 29-35;
217. P. Lee, A. Dickinson, and J. Slater, eds., International Yearbook of History Education, vol. 2 (London: Woburn Press 1999).
218. Seixas, 'A Discipline Adrift in an "Integrated" Curriculum,' 103
219. Robert Martineau, L 'histoire à l 'école: matière à penser (Montréal: L'Harmattan 1999).
220. See also his 'Apprendre l'histoire dans une société démocratique,' McGill Journal of Education 28 (1993): 421-441.
221. Frank B. Murray, 'Reforming Teacher Education: Issues and the Joint Effort of Education and Liberal Arts Faculty,' The History Teacher 31 (August 1998): 503-19;
222. Ravitch, 'Who Prepares Our Teachers? Who Should Prepare Our Teachers?' 495-502.
223. See also Peter Seixas, 'Beyond "Content" and "Pedagogy": In Search of a Way to Talk about History Education,' Journal of Curriculum Studies 31 (1999): 317-337.
224. In this vein, Olivier Courteaux wrote an article in the National Post ('Heard of Godbout?' 17 May 1999) blaming Canadians' ignorance of Adélard Godbout on the absence of national history standards.
225. Hilda Neatby, 'National History,' Royal Commission Studies, 210
226. Lawrence J. Burpee, 'Presidential Address,' Canadian Historical Association, Annual Report, 1924, 9
227. Marius Barbeau, 'Report of the Secretary-Treasurer,' Canadian Historical Association, Annual Report, 1925, 11-13
228. George Brown and Donald G. Creighton, 'Canadian History in Retrospect,' Canadian Historical Review 25 (December 1944): 357-375
229. Ivo Lambi, 'Fifty Years of the Canadian Historical Association: What Next?' Canadian Historical Association, Historical Papers, 1972, 3;
230. Desmond Morton, 'History and Nationality in Canada: Variations on an Old Theme,' Canadian Historical Association, Historical Papers, 1979, 9
231. I am indebted to Professor Jose Igartua of Université du Québec à Montréal for information on recent CHA activities concerning teaching.
232. Sage, 'The Teaching of History in the Elementary Schools of Canada,' 63.
233. For a survey of the variety of activities now under way in the United States to promote history in the schools, see The History Teacher 31 (1998): 235-63, 341-50, 533-538.